Fluid Mechanics.
Pressure. Variation of Pressure with Depth. Pressure Measurements. Buoyant Forces and Archimedes's Principle. Fluid Dynamics. Bernoulli's Equation.
A fluid is a collection of molecules that are randomly arranged and held together by weak cohesive forces and by forces exerted by the walls of a container. Both liquids and gases are fluids.
Pressure .ppt
Physical pressure
Course of lectures
«Contemporary
Contemporary
Physics: Part1»
Physics: Part1
Lecture №9
№9
Lecture
Fluid Mechanics.
Fluid Mechanics.
Pressure. Variation of Pressure with
Pressure. Variation of Pressure with
Depth. Pressure Measurements.
Depth. Pressure Measurements.
Buoyant Forces and Archimedes's
Buoyant Forces and Archimedes's
Principle. Fluid Dynamics. Bernoulli's
Fluid Dynamics. Bernoulli's
Principle.
Equation.
Equation.
Physical pressure
Fluid Mechanics
A fluid is a collection of molecules that are randomly
arranged and held together by weak cohesive forces and by
forces exerted by the walls of a container. Both liquids and
gases are fluids.
In our treatment of the mechanics of fluids, we do not need to learn
any new physical principles to explain such effects as the buoyant
force acting on a submerged object and the dynamic lift acting on
an airplane wing. First, we consider the mechanics of a fluid at rest
—that is, fluid statics. We then treat the mechanics of fluids in
motion— that is, fluid dynamics. We can describe a fluid in motion
by using a model that is based upon certain simplifying
assumptions.
Physical pressure
Pressure
Figure 7.1 At any point on
the surface of a submerged
object, the force exerted by
the fluid is perpendicular to
the surface of the object.
The force exerted by the
fluid on the walls of the
container is perpendicular
to the walls at all points.
Physical pressure
Pressure
If F is the magnitude of the force
exerted on the piston and A is the
surface area of the piston, then the
pressure P of the fluid at the level
to which
the device has been
submerged is defined as the ratio
F/A:
(7.1)
Figure 7.2 A simple device
for measuring
the pressure
exerted by a fluid.
Note that pressure is a scalar quantity
because it is proportional to the magnitude
of the force on the piston.
Physical pressure
If the pressure varies over an area, we can evaluate the infinitesimal
force dF on an infinitesimal surface element of area dA as
(7.2)
where P is the pressure at the location of the area dA. The pressure
exerted by a fluid varies with depth. Therefore, to calculate the total
force exerted on a flat vertical wall of a container, we must integrate
Equation 7.2 over the surface area of the wall.
Because pressure is force per unit
area, it has units of newtons per
square meter (N/m2) in the SI
system. Another name for the SI
unit of pressure is pascal (Pa):
(7.3)
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Snowshoes keep you from sinking into soft
snow because they spread the downward force
you exert on the snow over a large area,
reducing the pressure on the snow surface.
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Variation of Pressure with Depth
Table 7.1
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Variation of Pressure with Depth
Figure 7.3 A parcel of fluid (darker
region) in a larger volume of fluid
is singled out. The net force exerted
on the parcel of fluid must be zero
because it is in equilibrium.
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Variation of Pressure with Depth
(7.4)
That is, the pressure P at a depth
h below a point in the liquid at
which
is
greater by an amount ghρ .
the pressure
is P0
Physical pressure
If the liquid is open to the atmosphere and P0 is the pressure at the
surface of the liquid, then P0 is atmospheric pressure. In our
calculations and working of endofchapter problems, we usually
take atmospheric pressure to be
In view of the fact that the pressure in a fluid depends on depth
and on the value of P0, any increase in pressure at the surface must
be transmitted to every other point in the fluid. This concept was
first recognized by the French scientist Blaise Pascal (1623–1662)
and is called Pascal’s law: a change in the pressure applied to a
fluid is transmitted undiminished to every point of the fluid
and to the walls of the container.
Physical pressure
Figure 7.4 (a) Diagram of a hydraulic press. Because the increase in
pressure is the same on the two sides, a small force Fl at the left
produces a much greater force F2 at the right.
Physical pressure
(b)
Figure 7.4 (a) Diagram of a hydraulic press. Because the increase in
pressure is the same on the two sides, a small force Fl at the left
produces a much greater force F2 at the right. (b) A vehicle undergoing
repair is supported by a hydraulic lift in a garage.
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Pressure Measurements
(a)
Figure 7.5 (a) a mercury barometer.
Physical pressure
Pressure Measurements
(b)
The difference in pressure
P P0 is equal to ρgh. The
pressure P is called the
absolute pressure, while
the difference P P0 is
gauge
called
pressure. For example,
the pressure you measure
in your bicycle tire is
gauge pressure.
the
Figure 7.5 (b) an opentube
manometer.
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Buoyant Forces and
Archimedes’s Principle
(a)
(b)
Figure 7.6 (a) A swimmer attempts to push a beach ball underwater. (b) The forces
on a beach ball–sized parcel of water. The buoyant force B on a beach ball that
replaces this parcel is exactly the same as the buoyant force on the parcel.
Physical pressure
Buoyant Forces and
Archimedes’s Principle
The upward force exerted by a fluid on any
immersed object is called a buoyant force.
The magnitude of the buoyant
force always equals the weight of
the fluid displaced by the object.
as
This
Archimedes’s principle.
statement
is
known
Physical pressure
Buoyant Forces and
Archimedes’s Principle
(7.5)
Figure 7.7 The external forces
acting on the cube of liquid are
the gravitational force Fg and the
B. Under
buoyant
equilibrium conditions, B = Fg .
force
Physical pressure
Case 1: Totally Submerged Object
(a)
(b)
Figure 7.8 The external forces acting on
the cube of liquid are the gravitational
force Fg and the buoyant force B. Under
equilibrium conditions, B = Fg .
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Case 1: Totally Submerged Object
Thus, the direction of motion of an
object submerged
is
determined only by the densities of
the object and the fluid.
in a
fluid
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Case 2: Floating Object
Figure 7.9 An object floating on the surface of a fluid experiences
two forces, the gravitational force Fg and the buoyant force B.
Because the object floats in equilibrium, B = Fg .
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Case 2: Floating Object
(7.6)
This equation tells us that the fraction of the volume of a
floating object that is below the fluid surface is equal to
the ratio of the density of the object to that of the fluid.
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Fluid Dynamics
When fluid is in motion, its flow can be characterized as being one of
two main types. The flow is said to be steady, or laminar, if each
particle of the fluid follows a smooth path, such that the paths of
different particles never cross each other. In steady flow, the velocity
of fluid particles passing any point remains constant in time.
Figure 7.10
Laminar flow
around an
automobile in a
test wind tunnel.
Physical pressure
Fluid Dynamics
Above a certain critical speed, fluid flow becomes turbulent;
turbulent flow
irregular flow characterized by small
whirlpoollike regions, as shown in Figure 7.11.
is
Figure 7.11 Hot gases from
a cigarette made visible by
smoke particles. The smoke
first moves in laminar flow
at the bottom and then in
turbulent flow above.
Physical pressure
Fluid Dynamics
The term viscosity is commonly used in the
description of fluid flow to characterize the degree
of internal friction in the fluid. This internal
friction, or viscous force, is associated with the
resistance that two adjacent layers of fluid have to
moving relative to each other. Viscosity causes
part of the kinetic energy of a fluid to be
converted to internal energy. This mechanism is
similar to the one by which an object sliding on a
rough horizontal surface loses kinetic energy.
Physical pressure
Fluid Dynamics
Because the motion of real fluids is very complex and not fully
understood, we make some simplifying assumptions in our
approach. In our model of ideal fluid flow, we make the following
four assumptions:
1. The fluid is nonviscous. In a nonviscous fluid, internal friction
is neglected. An object moving through the fluid experiences no
viscous force.
2. The flow is steady. In steady (laminar) flow, the velocity of the
fluid at each point remains constant.
3. The fluid is incompressible. The density of an incompressible
fluid is constant.
4. The flow is irrotational. In irrotational flow, the fluid has no
angular momentum about any point. If a small paddle wheel placed
anywhere in the fluid does not rotate about the wheel’s center of
mass, then the flow is irrotational.
Physical pressure
Fluid Dynamics
The path taken by a fluid particle
under steady flow
is called a
streamline. The velocity of the
particle is always tangent to the
streamline, as shown in Figure
7.12. A set of streamlines like the
ones shown in Figure 7.12 form a
that fluid
tube of
particles cannot flow into or out of
the sides of this tube; if they could,
then the streamlines would cross
each other.
flow. Note
flow
Figure 7.12 A particle in
laminar
follows a
streamline, and at each point
along its path the particle’s
velocity is tangent to the
streamline.
Physical pressure
Fluid Dynamics
Figure 7.13 A fluid moving with steady flow through a
pipe of varying crosssectional area. The volume of
fluid flowing through area A1 in a time interval ∆t must
equal the volume flowing through are A2 in the same
time interval. Therefore, A1v1 = A2v2.
Physical pressure
Fluid Dynamics
This expression is called the equation of continuity for fluids.
It states that
(7.7)
the product of the area and the fluid speed at all
points along a pipe
for an
incompressible fluid.
is constant
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Bernoulli’s Equation
Figure 7.14 A fluid in laminar flow through a
constricted pipe. The volume of the shaded portion on
the left is equal to the volume of the shaded portion on
the right.
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Bernoulli’s Equation
Physical pressure
Bernoulli’s Equation
(7.8)
This is Bernoulli’s equation as applied to an ideal fluid. It is
often expressed as
(7.9)
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Bernoulli’s Equation
This Bernoulli effect explains the experience with the truck on the
highway at the opening of this section. As air passes between you
and the truck, it must pass through a relatively narrow channel.
According to the continuity equation, the speed of the air is
higher. According to the Bernoulli effect, this higher speed air
exerts less pressure on your car than the slower moving air on the
other side of your car. Thus, there is a net force pushing you
toward the truck!
Physical pressure
Other Applications of Fluid Dynamics
airplane wing. The
Figure 7.15 Streamline flow around a
moving
air
approaching from the right is deflected
downward by the wing. By Newton’s
third law, this must coincide with an
upward force on the wing from the air—
lift. Because of air resistance, there is also
a force opposite the velocity of the wing
— drag.
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Other Applications of Fluid Dynamics
Figure 7.16 Because of the deflection of
air, a spinning golf ball experiences a
lifting force that allows it to travel much
farther than it would if it were not
spinning.
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Other Applications of Fluid Dynamics
Figure 7.17 A stream of air passing over a tube dipped
into a liquid causes the liquid to rise in the tube.
Physical pressure
Quick Quiz 7.1
Suppose you are standing directly
behind someone who steps back and
accidentally stomps on your foot with
the heel of one shoe. Would you be
better off if that person were (a) a
large professional basketball player
wearing sneakers (b) a petite woman
wearing spikeheeled shoes?
Physical pressure
Quick Quiz 7.2
The pressure at the bottom of a filled
glass of water (ρ=1 000 kg/m3) is P. The
water is poured out and the glass is
filled with ethyl alcohol ρ=806 kg/m3).
The pressure at the bottom of the glass
is (a) smaller than P (b) equal to P (c)
larger than P (d) indeterminate.
Physical pressure
Quick Quiz 7.3
Several common barometers are built,
with a variety of fluids. For which of
the following fluids will the column of
fluid in the barometer be the highest?
(a) mercury (b) water (c) ethyl alcohol
(d) benzene
Physical pressure
Quick Quiz 7.4
An apple is held completely submerged
just below the surface of a container of
water. The apple is then moved to a
deeper point in the water. Compared to
the force needed to hold the apple just
below the surface, the force needed to
hold it at a deeper point is (a) larger (b)
the same (c) smaller (d) impossible to
determine.
Physical pressure
Quick Quiz 7.5
You observe two helium balloons floating
next to each other at the ends of strings
secured to a table. The facing surfaces of the
balloons are separated by 1–2 cm. You blow
through the small space between the balloons.
What happens to the balloons? (a) They move
toward each other. (b) They move away from
each other. (c) They are unaffected.
Physical pressure
Quick Quiz 7.6
You tape two different soda straws together
endtoend to make a longer straw with no
leaks. The two straws have radii of 3 mm and
5 mm. You drink a soda through your
combination straw. In which straw is the speed
of the liquid the highest? (a) whichever one is
nearest your mouth (b) the one of radius 3 mm
(c) the one of radius 5 mm (d) Neither—the
speed is the same in both straws.
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