Cytology is the science of the cell. It stood out from other biological Sciences almost 100 years ago. For the first time generalized information about the structure of cells were collected in the book Zh.-B. Karnua "cell Biology", published in 1884. Modern Cytology studies the structure of cells, their functioning as elementary living systems: the functions of individual cell components, the processes of cell reproduction, their repair, adaptation to environmental conditions and many other processes that allow us to judge the General properties and functions of all cells. Cytology also considers the features of the structure of specialized cells. In other words, modern Cytology is the physiology of the cell. Cytology is closely associated with scientific and methodological achievements of biochemistry, Biophysics, molecular biology and genetics. This was the basis for an in-depth study of cells from the standpoint of these Sciences and the emergence of a kind of synthetic science about the cell – cell biology, or cell biology. Currently, the terms Cytology and cell biology are the same, as their subject of study is the cell with its own laws of organization and functioning. The discipline "cell Biology" refers to the fundamental sections of biology, because it explores and describes the only unit of all life on Earth – the cell.
Research methods in cytology.docx
ZHETYSU STATE UNIVERSITY NAMED AFTER ILYAS
ZHANSUGUROV
ESSAY
Topic: Research methods in cytology
Performed: Tleukhanova M.
TALDYKORGAN, 2019 Plan:
1. What studies Cytology.
2. The idea that organisms are made up of cells.
3. Research methods used in Cytology.
4. Cell fractionation.
5. Autoradiography.
6. Determination of the duration of some stages of the cell cycle by radioautography. Cytology is the science of the cell. It stood out from other biological Sciences almost 100
years ago. For the first time generalized information about the structure of cells were collected in
the book Zh.B. Karnua "cell Biology", published in 1884. Modern Cytology studies the
structure of cells, their functioning as elementary living systems: the functions of individual cell
components, the processes of cell reproduction, their repair, adaptation to environmental
conditions and many other processes that allow us to judge the General properties and functions
of all cells. Cytology also considers the features of the structure of specialized cells. In other
words, modern Cytology is the physiology of the cell. Cytology is closely associated with
scientific and methodological achievements of biochemistry, Biophysics, molecular biology and
genetics. This was the basis for an indepth study of cells from the standpoint of these Sciences
and the emergence of a kind of synthetic science about the cell – cell biology, or cell biology.
Currently, the terms Cytology and cell biology are the same, as their subject of study is the cell
with its own laws of organization and functioning. The discipline "cell Biology" refers to the
fundamental sections of biology, because it explores and describes the only unit of all life on
Earth – the cell.
A long and close study of the cell as such led to the formulation of an important
theoretical generalization of General biological significance, namely the emergence of cell
theory. In the XVII century. Robert Hooke, a physicist and biologist, characterized by great
ingenuity, created a microscope. Looking at a thin slice of cork under his microscope, Hooke
found that it was built of tiny, empty cells separated by thin walls, which, as we now know,
consist of cellulose. He called these little cells cells cells. Later, when other biologists began to
examine plant tissues under a microscope, it turned out that the small cells found by Hooke in a
dead driedup tube, there are also living plant tissues, but they are not empty, and each contain a
small gelatinous body. After microscopic examination of animal tissues, it was found that they
also consist of small gelatinous bodies, but that these bodies are only rarely separated from each
other by walls. As a result of all these studies in 1939 Schleiden and Schwann independently
formulated the cellular theory that cells are the elementary units from which all plants and all
animals are ultimately built. For some time, the double meaning of the word cage still caused
some misunderstanding, but then he firmly entrenched these small jellylike bodies.
Modern understanding of the cell is closely related to technical achievements and
improvements in research methods. In addition to conventional light microscopy, which has not
lost its role, polarization, ultraviolet, fluorescence, phasecontrast microscopy has become very
important in the last few decades. Among them, a special place is occupied by electron
microscopy, the resolution of which allowed to penetrate and study the submicroscopic and
molecular structure of the cell. Modern research methods have allowed to reveal a detailed
picture of the cellular organization.
Each cell consists of a nucleus and cytoplasm, separated from each other and from the
environment shells. The components of the cytoplasm are: shell, hyaloplasm, endoplasmic
reticulum and ribosomes, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, mitochondria, inclusions, cell center,
specialized organelles.
Part of the body that performs some special function is called an organ. Any organ –
lung, liver, kidney, for example – has its own special structure, through which it plays a role in
the body. Similarly, in the cytoplasm, there are special structures, a kind of structure which gives them the ability to carry certain functions necessary for cell metabolism; these structures are
called organelles ("small bodies").
Clarification of the nature, function and distribution of cytoplasmic organelles became
possible only after the development of methods of modern cell biology. Most useful in this
respect were: 1) electron microscopy; 2) fractionation of cells by which biochemists can identify
a relatively pure fraction of cells contain certain organelles, and to study, thus separate they are
interested in metabolic reactions; 3) radioautography that has made possible the direct study of
individual metabolic reactions that occur in organelles.
The method by which organelles are isolated from cells is called fractionation. This
method was very fruitful, giving biochemists the opportunity to allocate different cell organelles
in a relatively pure form. It allows, in addition, to determine the chemical composition of
organelles and enzymes contained in them and on the basis of the data to draw conclusions about
their functions in the cell. As a first step, cells are destroyed by homogenization in some suitable
medium, which ensures the safety of organelles and prevents their aggregation. Very often, a
sucrose solution is used for this. Although mitochondria and many other cellular organelles
remain intact, membrane interlacing, such as the endoplasmic reticulum, as well as the plasma
membrane, disintegrate into fragments. However, the resulting fragments of membranes are
often closed to themselves, resulting in rounded bubbles of different sizes.
At the next stage, the cell homogenate is subjected to a series of centrifugations, the
speed and duration of which increases each time; this process is called differential centrifugation.
Different cell organelles are deposited at the bottom of centrifuge tubes at different
centrifugation rates, depending on the size, density and shape of the organelles. The resulting
sediment can be selected and investigated. Faster all deposited such large and dense structures as
the core, and for the deposition of smaller and less dense structures, such as vesicles of the
endoplasmic reticulum, required more speed and longer time. Therefore, at low centrifugation
rates, nuclei are deposited and other cell organelles remain in suspension. At higher speeds,
mitochondria and lysosomes are deposited, and with prolonged centrifugation and very high
speeds, even small particles such as ribosomes precipitate. Precipitation can be examined using
an electron microscope to determine the purity of the obtained fractions. All fractions are to
some extent contaminated with other organelles. If nevertheless it is possible to achieve
sufficient purity of the fractions, they are then subjected to biochemical analysis to determine the
chemical composition and enzymatic activity of the isolated organelles.
Relatively recently, another method of cell fractionation was created – centrifugation in a
density gradient; while centrifugation is produced in a test tube, in which sucrose solutions are
prelayered on each other with increasing concentration, and consequently with increasing
density. When centrifuging, the organelles contained in the homogenate are located in a
centrifuge tube at the levels at which the sucrose solutions corresponding to them in density are
located. This method allows biochemists to separate organelles of the same size but different
density (Fig.
Radioautography is a relatively new method that has immensely expanded the
possibilities of both light and electron microscopy. This is a highly modern method, due to the
development of nuclear physics, which made it possible to obtain radioactive isotopes of various
elements. Radioautography requires, in particular, isotopes of those elements that are used by the
cell or can bind to substances used by the cell, and which can be administered to animals or added to cultures in quantities that do not violate normal cell metabolism. Since a radioactive
isotope (or a substance labeled with it) participates in biochemical reactions in the same way as
its nonradioactive counterpart, and at the same time emits radiation, the path of isotopes in the
body can be traced by various methods of detecting radioactivity. One way of detecting
radioactivity is based on its ability to act on the film like light; but radioactive radiation
penetrates the black paper used to protect the film from light, and has the same effect on the film
as light.
To preparations intended for the study using light or electron microscopes, it was possible
to detect radiation emitted by radioactive isotopes, drugs are covered in a dark room special
emulsion, and then left for a while in the dark. Then the drugs are shown (also in the dark) and
fixed. Areas of the drug containing radioactive isotopes affect the emulsion lying above them, in
which dark "grains"appear under the action of the emitted radiation. Thus, receive radio
autographs (from Greek. radio – xiphoid, autos – himself and graph – write).
Initially, histologists had only a few radioactive isotopes; for example, many early studies
using radioautography used radioactive phosphorus. Later, much more of these isotopes were
used; the radioactive isotope of hydrogen, tritium, was particularly widely used.
Radioautography had and still has a very wide application for the study of where and how
in the body are certain biochemical reactions.
Chemical compounds labeled with radioactive isotopes that are used to study biological
processes are called precursors. Precursors are usually substances similar to those that the body
receives from food; they serve as building blocks for building tissues and are incorporated into
complex components of cells and tissues in the same way as unlabeled building blocks are
incorporated into them. The component of the tissue in which the labeled precursor is
incorporated and which emits radiation is called the product.
Cells, grown in culture, although they belong to the same type at any given time will be at
different stages of the cell cycle, if you do not take special measures to synchronize their cycles.
However, by introducing tritiumthymidine into the cells and then producing radio autographs,
the duration of the different stages of the cycle can be determined. The time of onset of one stage
– mitosis – can be determined without labeled thymidine. To do this, a sample of cells from the
culture is kept under observation in a phasecontrast microscope, which makes it possible to
directly monitor the course of mitosis and set its terms. The duration of mitosis is usually equal
to 1 h, although in some types of cells it takes up to 1.5 h.
Determination of the duration of G 2period.
To determine the duration of the G 2–period, a method known as a pulse mark is used:
labeled thymidine is added to the cell culture, and after a short time, the culture medium is
replaced with a fresh one, in order to prevent further absorption of labeled thymidine by the
cells. In this case, the label is included only in those cells that during a short stay in the medium
with tritiumthymidine were in the Speriod of the cell cycle. The proportion of such cells is
small and only a small part of the cells will be labeled. In addition, all cells, including the label,
will be in interphase – from cells, barely entered the Speriod, to those, that almost finished it
during the action of tritiumthymidine. In the sample taken immediately after the removal of
labeled thymidine, the label is contained only in the interphase nuclei belonging to cells that were in the Speriod during the exposure to the label; the same cells that were in the mitotic state
during this period remain unmarked.
If you then continue to take samples from the culture at regular intervals and produce a
radioautograph for each successive sample, the moment will come when the label begins to
appear in the mitotic dchromosomes. Labels will be included in all those cells that were in the
Speriod during the presence of tritiumthymidine in the medium, and among these cells there
will be both just entered the Speriod and almost finished it. It is obvious that these latter are the
first among the labeled cells will do mitosis and, therefore, in their mitotic chromosomes found
label. Thus, the interval between 1) the time when the labeled thymidine was removed from the
culture, and 2) the time of appearance of labeled mitotic chromosomes will correspond to the
duration of G 2–period of the cell cycle.
Determination of the duration of the Speriod.
Since the cells at the time of introduction of the label into the medium at the very end of
the Speriod, the first to enter the mitosis, therefore, in those cells, in which the Speriod begins
immediately before the removal of the label, labeled mitotic chromosomes will appear in the last
place. Therefore, if we were able to determine the period of time between the entry into mitosis
of cells that are marked first, and the cell marked with the latter, we would set the duration of the
Speriod. However, although the time when the first labeled mitotic chromosomes appear is easy
to establish, the time of entry into the mitosis of the cells marked by the latter can not be
determined (this is prevented by a very large number of labeled dividing cells in the last
samples). Therefore, the duration of the Speriod has to be determined in another way.
In the study of radioautographs of consecutive cell samples taken at the same time
intervals, it is found that the proportion of cells carrying the label in their mitotic chromosomes,
gradually increases until labeled will not be literally all dividing cells. However, as the cells one
by one complete mitosis, they develop into labeled interphase cells. The first to complete mitosis
are those of the labeled cells that entered it first; and, accordingly, from cells with labeled mitotic
chromosomes, the last to complete mitosis are those that entered it later than anyone. Since the
duration of mitosis is always the same, therefore, if we could determine промежуток между: 1)
временем окончания митоза в клетках, включивших метку первыми, и 2) временем
включивших метку последними,
окончания митоза в клетках,
мы установили бы
продолжительность Sпериода.
Продолжительность Sпериода нетрудно установить,
определив промежуток между: 1) моментом времени, когда 50% митотических клеток в
культуре несут метку, и 2) моментом времени, после которого культура уже не содержит
50% меченых клеток.
Determination of generation time (total duration of the whole cell cycle).
Continuing to select from the culture of cell samples, you can find that the labeled mitotic
figures at some point completely disappear, and then reappear. Such dividing cells are daughter
cells deriving from those stem cells that have incorporated the label while in the moment of
impact of tritiumthymidine incorporation in Speriod. These mother cells went into the S
period, separated, and then went through the second interphase and the second division, that is,
did one complete cycle and part of the next. The time required to complete the cell cycle is called
the generation time. It corresponds to the interval between two consecutive peaks of the label inclusion and usually corresponds to the interval between those points of successive upward
curves in which 50% of mitotic figures contain the label.
Literature.
A. ham, D. Cormack "Histology", volume 1 Moscow "WORLD" 1982;
M. Abramov "Clinical Cytology" Moscow "MEDICINE", 1974;
Yu. S. Chentsov "General Cytology»
Research methods in cytology
Research methods in cytology
Research methods in cytology
Research methods in cytology
Research methods in cytology
Research methods in cytology
Research methods in cytology
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