GRAMMAR REFERENCE

Present simple

We use the present simple to talk about actions we see as long term or permanent. It is a very common tense. Here, we are talking about regular ac- tions or events.

They drive to the office every day. He doesn't come here every day. The news usually starts at 8.00 P.M.

Do you usually have porridge and eggs for breakfast?

Here, we are talking about facts.

Water freezes at 0° C or 32° F.

What does his dead-pan expression mean? The Tsna flows through Tambov.

Here, we are talking about future facts, usually found in a timetable or a chart.

Christmas Day falls on a Monday this year. The plane leaves at 6.00 tomorrow morning. The working day doesn't start at 5.00.

Here, we are talking about our thoughts and feelings at the time of speaking. Although these feelings can be short-term, we use the present simple and not the present continuous.

They don't ever agree with us.

I think you are right. He doesn't want you to do it.

Present continuous

The present continuous is used to talk about present situations which we see as short-term or temporary. In these examples, the action is taking place at the time of speaking.

Who is Bob talking to on the phone?

I'm not looking. My eyes are closed tightly.

In these examples, the action is true at the present time but we don't think it will be true in the long term.

I'm looking for a new separate apartment. He's thinking about leaving his job.

They're considering making an appeal against the judgment.

In these examples, the action is at a definite point in the future and it has already been arranged.

I'm meeting him at 7.30.

They aren't arriving until Sunday.

We are having a special dinner at a top restaurant for all the senior mana- gers. Isn't she coming to the dinner?

Present perfect

We use the present perfect when we want to look back from the present to the past.

We can use it to look back on the recent past.

I've broken my phone so I don't know what time it is. We have cancelled the meeting.

He's taken my project. I don't have one.

When we look back on the recent past, we often use the words 'just', 'already' or the word 'yet' (in negatives and questions only).

They've already talked about that. She hasn't arrived yet.

We've just done it. We don't know yet.

Have they spoken to him yet?

It can also be used to look back on the more distant past. We've been to Novgorod a lot over the last few years.

She's done this type of project many times before.

When we look back on the more distant past, we often use the words 'ever' (in questions) and 'never'.

Have you ever been to France?

Has he ever talked to you about the trouble? I've never met Jim and Sally.

We've never considered investing in Pakistan.

Past simple

We use the past simple to talk about actions and states which we see as completed in the past.

We can use it to talk about a specific point in time.

She came back last Monday. I saw them in the street.

It can also be used to talk about a period of time.

She lived in London for five years.

They were in New York from Monday to Thursday of last week.

When I was living in St. Petersburg, I went to all the art exhibitions I could.

You will often find the past simple used with time expressions such as these:

Yesterday ● three weeks ago ● last year ● in 2009

●  from May to July ● for a long time ● for 7 weeks

Past continuous

We use the past continuous to talk about past events which went on for a pe- riod of time.

We use it when we want to emphasize the continuing process of an activi- ty or the period of that activity. (If we just want to talk about the past event as a simple fact, we use the past simple.)

Were you expecting any visitors? Sorry, were you having a rest?

I was just making some coffee.

I was thinking about him last night.

In the 1990s few people were using mobile phones.

We often use it to describe a "background action" when something else happened.

I was walking in the street when I suddenly saw him.

She was talking to me on the phone and it suddenly went dead. They were still waiting for the bus when I spoke to them.

We were just talking about it before they arrived.

I was making a presentation in front of 100 people when the microphone stopped working.

Future

Going to

There is no one 'future tense' in English. There are 4 future forms. The one which is used most often in spoken English is 'going to', not 'will'.

They're going to launch it next month. I'm not going to talk for very long.

Notice that this plan does not have to be for the near future.

When I retire I'm going to go back to Barbados to live.

In ten years time, I'm going to be boss of my own successful company.

We use 'going to' when we want to make a prediction based on evidence we can see now.

Look out! That cup is going to fall off. We can replace 'going to go' by 'going'. They are going out later.

He's going to the exhibition tomorrow.

Will (shall)

Some people have been taught that 'will' is 'the future' in English. This is not correct. Sometimes when we talk about the future we cannot use 'will'. Sometimes when we use 'will' we are not talking about the future.

We can use 'will' to talk about future events we believe to be certain.

The sun will rise over there tomorrow morning. Next year, I'll be 50.

That train will be late. It always is.

Often we add 'perhaps', 'maybe', 'probably', 'possibly' to make the belief less certain.

I'll probably come back later.

He'll possibly find out when he sees Jenny. Maybe it will be OK.

The Passive

We use the active form to say what the subject does. For example:

I speak English every day at work.

We use the passive form to say what happens to people and things, to say what is done to them.

For example:

English is spoken here.

We use the passive form when we don't know who did the action. For example:

The car was damaged while it was parked on the street.

Personal and Impersonal Passive

Personal Passive simply means that the object of the active sentence be- comes the subject of the passive sentence. So every verb that needs an object (transitive verb) can form a personal passive.

For xample: They build houses. – Houses are built.

Verbs without an object (intransitive verb) normally cannot form a per- sonal passive sentence (as there is no object that can become the subject of the passive sentence). If you want to use an intransitive verb in passive voice, you need an impersonal construction – therefore this passive is called Impersonal Passive.

For xample: he says – it is said.

Impersonal Passive is not as common in English as in some other lan- guages (e.g. German, Latin). In English, Impersonal Passive is only possible with verbs of perception (e.g. say, think, know).

For xample: They say that women live longer than men. – It is said that women live longer than men.

Although Impersonal Passive is possible here, Personal Passive is more common.

For xample: They say that women live longer than men. – Women are said to live longer than men.

The subject of the subordinate clause (women) goes to the beginning of the sentence; the verb of perception is put into passive voice. The rest of the sentence is added using an infinitive construction with 'to' (certain auxiliary verbs and that are dropped).

Sometimes the term Personal Passive is used in English lessons if the indirect object of an active sentence is to become the subject of the passive sentence.

Reported speech

We use reported speech when we are saying what other people say, think or believe.

He says he wants it. We think you are right. I believe he loves her.

Yesterday you said you didn't like it but now you do! She told me he had asked her to marry him.

I told you she was ill.

We thought he was in Australia.

When we are reporting things in the present, future or present perfect we don't change the tense.

He thinks he loves her.

I'll tell her you are coming. He has said he'll do it.

When we tell people what someone has said in the past, we generally make the tense 'more in the past'.

You look very nice. = I told him he looked very nice.

He's working in Siberia now. = She told me he was working in Siberia now. Polly has bought a new car. = She said Polly had bought a new car.

Jo can't come for the weekend. = She said Jo couldn't come for the weekend.

Paul called and left a message. = He told me Paul had called and had left me a message.

I'll give you a hand. = He said he would give me a hand.

However, when we are reporting something that was said in the past but is still true, it is not obligatory to make the tense 'more in the past'. The choice is up to the speaker.

For example:

"The train doesn't stop here". He said the train doesn't stop here. He said the train didn't stop here.

"I like Sarah". She said she likes Sarah. She said she liked Sarah.

When we are reporting what was said, we sometimes have to change other words in the sentence.

We have to change the pronoun if we are reporting what someone else said. Compare these two sentences. In each case the person actually said "I don't want to go".

I said I didn't want to go.

Bill said he didn't want to go.

We have to change words referring to 'here and now' if we are reporting what was said in a different place or time.

Compare these two sentences. In each case the person actually said "I'll be there at ten tomorrow".

(If it is later the same day) He said he would be there at ten tomorrow.

(If it is the next day) He said he would be there at ten today.

Now compare these two sentences.

(If we are in a different place) He said he would be there tomorrow at ten.

(If we are in the place he is coming to) He said he would be here at ten tomorrow.

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