BUILDING

HRYHORIJ DYCZOK

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Table of Contents

Grammar Point I — Parts of the sentence.                                                        1

Grammar Point 3 — Using Modal Verbs to Make Requests                          8

Grammar Point 4 — Introduction to Prepositions                                           14

Grammar Point 5 — Prepositions Of Place                                                            17

Grammar Point 6 — Prepositions of Time                                                             20

Grammar Point 7 — Prepositions of Place & Movement                               26

Grammar Point 9 — Adjectives                                                                         37

Grammar Point 10 — Comparatives                                                                      38

Grammar Point I l — Order Of Adjectives                                                       44

Grammar Point 12 — Participle Adjectives                                                           46

Grammar Point 14 — A diective Clauses                                                               54

Grammar Point 15 - Adiective Clause Reductions                                          70

Grammar Point 1 6 — Equativcs                                                                       76

Grammar Point 1 7 — The Superlative                                                             81

Grammar Point 18 - Showing Causc and Effect with Adlectives                          85

InfinitiveR

Grammar Point 24 — More Participles as Subjects and Objects                           122

Grammar Point 25 — Adjective plus Infinitives      124 Grammar Point 26 — Modal Auxiliary Verbs  127 Grammar Point 77 — Modals for Advice          128

Grammar Point 28 — Modals for Necessity                                                     132

Grammar Point 30 — Modal Review                                                                     135

Grammar Point 31 — Modals for Speculation                                                       138

Grammar Point 32 — Speculating about the Present                                             139

Grammar Point 33 — Reported Speech                                                            143

Grammar Point 34 — Speculating about the Past                                                  152

Capy•riahtcr-i material

Grammar Pnillt 4? — Noun Clanwct                                                                      189

Grammar Point 43 - Noun Clause Connector/subiects                                    185

Grammar Point 45 — Count/ Non-count Review                                            195

Grammar Point 46 — l? eview Noun
Grammar Point 47 — Noun	ranneetnrq			197

Grammar Point 51 — Adverbs and Link Verbs                                                     210

Grammar Point 52 — Negative and "almost" negative adverbs at the beginning of a sentence 211

Grammar Point 53 - Adverb Clauses                                                                      212

Grammar Point 54 Adverb Clauses of Cause, Condition, and Contrast       216

Grammar Point 55 — Adverb Clause Reductions                                                 218

Grammar Point 56 — Adverh Clauqe- Redltvtinns with "Because"

Grammar Point 58 — Conjunctions                                                                  227

Grammar Point 59 — Word Parts from Greek 233 Grammar Point 60 — Paired Conjunctions 235

Grammar Point 61 — Applied Conjunctions                                                          240

Capy•riahtcr-i material

Grammar Point 1 - Parts of the sentence

A sentence

Grammatically speaking, a sentence is a group of words that has a subject and predicate. More importantly, however, a sentence is an exprssion Of an idea. Sentences can be one word long or one paragraph long — the only true common element is that the listener gets information,

All sentences in English are constructed the same way. The first tille about sentence structure is that the most important thing must go at the beginning. There are many ways to slightly alter the sentence structure in order to accomplish this, but in general, every sentence is constructed in the form^v

Subject - Verb - Object

The Subject

The subject is the person, place or thing that the sentence is about. It is the most important thing in the sentence. A subject is usually a noun, pronoun, or noun clause. The subject is usually followed by a verb.

There can be more than one subject in a sentence, but usually there is one main subject

 Note: The subject is not always the "doer" of the actionw Remember, in some situations the receiver or the action may be more important

The window was hpoken.

The egçkagg was delivered,

The confewnce was well-attended

In these cases, the end result is more  or you don't know who did the action.

Pattern to 100k for: There can be many nouns together. In this case, the LAST noun in the list is the subject — the other nouns are acting as adjectives and modifying that noun. This can be important, because the final noun can be plural and the therefore the verb must be plural also L             e.g.       The stone udd was too high to see oven The glue bottles were empty.

Pattern to look for: There are some situations in which the subject is not the first thing in the main clause, but these arc rare — most of the time, the subject is at the beginning of the main clause: In ore (h ree um bžel/os only does she play thepiano, she is also an accotuplished dancer, Rarely does snow in Toronto in May. There are some extra books in the closetL

The Verb

The verb in the sentence describes the subject or describes the action of the subject, The verb must "agree" with the subject in number (if the subject is singular, the verb must be in the singular form) and in person (I /you/he/she/it etc.)

There are many forms of verb structures in English, and all verbs are classified as either Main or Auxiliary (helping). When you are examining a sentence, it is important to understand that all parts of the verb structure are part of the verb and they give important information about the verb

Things to remember about subject-verb agreement: The veib must always agree with the subject — regardless of how far away the subject is from the verb:       e.g.                   at the end ofthe hail in the glases my son                   The hooks at the bottom ofthe                 sale If an "expression of quantity" (most/some/none/all + of the... ) is used as the subject the noun after the "the" is the subject, and the verb must agree with it: e.g. Most oftheeeQ2de gone. If the paired conjunctions either.. or .. orneither nor . introduce the subJect, the one closer to the verb affects the verb:       e.g.     Either the students                      going to be there.                          Either the teacher or                                               to be there If the word "and" is part of the subject, the subject is always plural and must take a plural verb, even when both of the items in the subject are non-count v         e.g.           The rice and the bread The game and the celebration €£gfnished. Howevert when the subject is one unit, even when there is an "and", it is considered singUlar:       e.g.       The macaroni and cheese was good. Co wheys and Indians was a populargame. Words like someone, something, nothing, nobody, everything, everybody and expressions with each are always considered singular — however, if words like some are used as adjectives, then they don't affect the verb: e.g.      Somebodyisarthedoorr     outside a there is no subject—it is understood to be Thereforet the verb must always be in the second person singular form.

2

Sentence analysis shorthand When you are analyzing a sentence, you need to be able to quickly recognize the main parts — subject, verb, preposition phrases, etc. Here is a useful "key" for analyzing sentences on paper: underline the subject (and any adjective directly connected to the subject) once: underline the verb (the entire verb structure, including any auxiliary verbs, and "not") twice: e,g, The people in line outside. put parentheses around any preposition phrase:               e.g. Thepeople (at the corner) (ofthis street) are            a country) (in Europe). put brackets around any adjective clause or phrase e.g. The man {wearing glassesl is someone { whom I don 't know). put square brackets around any noun clause or phrase e.g. (What I want to know/ is (when you will arrive/ put angle brackets around any subordinate clause or phrase                e.g. <lfyou don't tell me>, I           meet you on rime.

Exercise 1.1 Sentence analysis

In each sentence, underline the subject once and the verb twice. Mark if the sentence is correct (C) or incorrect (I). Then, fix any mistakes.

 I BOb is coming home.

 2, California is the most populous state in the U, S,

 3. Theoretical mathematics are difficult.

 4. I saw the sports news on TV last night.

 5. Didhe callyet?

 6. There is people waiting for you outside.

3

 7, It is going to rain tomorrow.

 8. Frank and Yoko was studying for the test all night.

 9. The pencils you gave me is very nice.

 10. The book on the shelf at the top of the stairs are on sale.

 I I. My new computer looks nice, but really it's nothing special.

 12. Yesterday I bought some new CDs.

 13. Before transistors, radios used to were much bigger,

 There are, in the room upstairS many noises.

 16, There have been fire all over upstate New York in the last few weeks,  17, He, in the past four months, have taken 5 exams and written.

 18. The children in the backyard has not yet brushed their teeth today.

 19. There are many geography book on the shelf at the top of the stairs.

 20. Stop saying that!

 21. In the box on the shelf at the top Of the statrs.

 22. The test have 200 questions.

 23. There have 3 children.

 24, There is, in the library, over 800 new books.

 25. In the family there are over 25 children.

 26. Sit down!

 27 r Under the lidv

28 Please hand me the papers.

 29. He turned on the computer and left.

 30. Some people like fishing, and some don't.

Grammar point 2 - "There is" vs. "To have"

These structures both show a relationship between the speaker and others.

	have" is used in the fóllowing situations: to emphasise ownership or possession Of an Object. I have dog The dog has hig teeth 2. to talk about one specific thing, rather than an idea: have 2 children
Things to remember about "have"' To make a question, use the auxiliary verb "do", in the appropriate form. Do you have any brothers or sisters? Do you have guy classes before 10? Does he have a car? Did she have a good time? When answering with a reduced form, remember to use the auxlliary "do", NOT "have" Yes he did not Yes he had No, fdon't not No, I havent (If you answer with No, I haven't, you are making the present perfect tense rather than a simple tense)

Have IS also used with:  meals

e.g. in Tokyo and dinner in Cairo

                    I was very busy this qtemoon so J        't have lunch

 time (for a specific purpose)

e.g. I have time to talk to you now.

When do you have tijne to meet?

'Y aches and pains e,g. I have a headache.

I have pain in my back.

5

	"There is" is usually used When the subject is invisible to the listener e.g There is an extra set Ofcluhs in the trunk There is a big black spider crawling up your back 2.      To talk about general thing e.g. There lots ofchildrept in myfámily There are many people i" the store 3.      When there is no obvious owner e.g. There is lots ofwater in the canoe There are many hybrid cars on the market these days 4.      To emphasize something to the listener e.g There are three mistakes in this report There is someone waitingfor you
Pattern to look for: The real subject comes AFTER the verb, but the verb ''to eeg.     There gre Thew no rice Thew some		agree with it.

Keep In mind:

 The verb must agjee with the stibjectï regardless of the tense, and/or the distance of the subject from the verb,

e.g. There recently.

There in my opiniont no excuse for his actions.

Look at these further examples:

I have a family

T have 2 brothers

T have an apažtment

There are three boys in my family

There are three rooms There is a lot of space

Exercise 2.1

In the following sentences, underline the subject once and the verb twice. Then, mark if the sentence uses the correct form: there is/are or have. If you think it is correct, mark "NO Change - NC". If you think it should be changed, mark "Change" - "C" and rewrite it'

I . There are three cats in my house,

_2.	There are five people in my family.
_3.	In my house there are 8 rooms,
4.	There is a nice view from my house.

5. The university has no Cheap apartments near it.

6. There is a big party next week at the Student Centre,

7.      The university bookstore has many books.

8.      There is much memory in my computer.

9.      There is a camera on my cell-phone.

10. There are many off-campus activities throughout the year.

 I I . Toronto usually has nice weather 111 June.

 12. Canada has many mountains In the west.

 13r There is a lot of smog in many Canadian cities in summer.

Grammar point 3 - Using modal verbs to make requests

When you make a request, it is important to be polite — this will greatly increase the chance of the request being fulfilled,

A very simple way of' making a request more polite is simply to add the word "please" at the beginning or end Of a sentence.

Another way is to use a modal auxiliary verb (auxiliary means helping/ assisting). Modal auxiliaries add emotion to speech - here, we will focus on making speech more polite.

Things to remember about modal auxiliary verbs: Modal auxiliary verbs always go before the main verb e.g. You could stop not You stop could Modal auxiliary vet'bs never change form, regardless ofthe number or person of the subject e.g. He may go not He mays go Modal auxiliaries are always followed by the Simple Form of the Verb (S.F.V.) e.g She can talk not She can talks

Exercise 3.1

In the following sentences, underline the subject one time and the verb two times, Then mark if the sentence is correct (C) or incorrect (I). Correct any mistakes.

 Could        Stop shouting!

 He for you there.

3. She can go there if she wants, 4, Will you please wait here?

5. WOuld you minds if I smoked?

6. Can he stand here?

7, Would mind you holding rny dog?

 He borrow can your book.

There are two common ways to make polite requests — to ask permission (you do something), or ask a favor (somebody does something)

When you ask permission, use; May Could + 1 + Can

e.g. May 1001701'.' your book?

Could I useyour computer? Can see your notes?

e.g. Wouldyou lead me a hand?

Couldyou show me that paper? Can you wait right here?

Another way of making a very politc rcqucst is with the structure: Do you mind/Would you mind?

When you ask permission with "Do you mind", say: Do you mind Would you mind + ifl + [past forml

opened the window? you mind if/ sat down?

e.g. Wóuldyou           moving — I         see Would you mind closing the door?

Things to keep in mind about these polite requests: When you use "would you mind", "yes" means "it's NOT OK, please DON'T" "no" means "no problem, go ahead"            e.g.        Would you mind ifIsat down? No go ahead, please sit down)                         Would you         i/ÏI opened the window? Yès (=please don 'r open it) Would you mind waiting? No I wait) Would you mind repeating that?                           Yes why              you listening thefirst time?) Traditionally, when using the structure "Would you mind if I t ', the verb was in the past form. In modern conversational English, however, it is common to use the Simple Form Of the Verb (S.F. V.)            e.g.        Would you mind ifIsa; down (traditionally correct)                         Would        mind           down Would you mind illsmoked? (traditionally eon-ect) Would you mind if/smoke? (modern conversational)

Exercise 3.2

Make the fOllowing sentence more polite by adding modåls. Remember, there is always more than one correct way of saying the same thing.

Pass me the salt.

2.      Talk more quietly.

3.      I'm going to sit down beside you, now.

Give me another coke,

5. Stop talking„

6	I'm going to use your phone.
7.	Explain this to me.
8,	Move.
	I will use your book now,

10. You are going to let me have the salt.

I I. You will stop smoking now.

12.   Speak up.

13.   Turn down your stereov

14 1 want you to move your car.

15. I want you to repeat yourself.

16. I am going to use your computer.

17. Hurry up and get off the computer.

18. Lend me $2.00 for the bus.

19. You will let me use your pen.

Telephone conversations

Many people are afraid Of speaking on the telephone in English — for many reasons. One thing that many people complain about is the fact that you cannot see the person, and therefore cannot read the body language, and the hints that these bring. Because you cannot see these clues, it is very important to be very polite on the telephone — probably more polite than in a regular conversation.

Exercise 3.3

Change these sentences into polite English using modals for politeness.

+ Remember; there is always more than one correct way to say the same thing.

1. wait.

2.	I want to talk to Tom.
3.	You will go see if Yoko is home
4.	You will take a message.
	Say that sentence again,
6.	I will leave a message.
7.	You will speak louder.
8	Repeat your question
9,	Stafi speaking slowly now,

10. I will talk to Rich.

12

Making plans on the telephone.

One Of the most common functions Of a telephone conversation is to arrange meeting times and places. Here are the prepositions that you will need to make the plans

I. The following prepositions are used with time: time at for example: at 3:30, at day/date= on fòr example.' On Monday, on the .?..Ý month = in for example: In Febmory, December year in fòr example.' In 1996, In 2005

In Combinations day/month "on" + on February day/month/year use 'ⁱon '2003 day/month/year/timc use both "on" and "at" Februa0' 2003 at 10.'10

Ill. Parts of the day (this always comes immediately after the time)

0:00 — 12:00 In the morning

12:00 - 6:00 In the afternoon

6:00 - 9:00 = In the evening

9:00 - 0:00 — - At night

            12:00pm         at noon

            00:00 am       at midnight

Exercise 3.4

Write complete sentences from these prompts Begin every sentence with "Let's meet at... or "How about..

            10:15 am       

            6:45 pm         

            9:10 am         

            7100 am         

            3:20 pm         

            4:50 pm         

               I am           

            5Ž10pm         

               I I pm         

            12:50 pm       

            2:10 pm         

Grammar Point 4 — Introduction to Prepositions

When we give information, it is important to make sure every idea is clear, and everything in the sentence has a clear function, For example, look at this sentence:

I live Toronto

The relationship between "I" and "live" is very clear I is the subject, and "live" is the verb. However, the relationship between "live" and "TOronto" is not clear. Do you live in Toronto, near Toronto, North of Toronto, South of Toronto the list goes on. In some casesj the noun immediately after the verb can be the direct object. To prevent this confusion, prepositions are used to connect ideas.

Prepositions are "connecting" words — as such, they must always connect two ideas. They connect the noun immediately following them to another idea- The noun immediately following the preposition is called the object of the preposition. A preposition and the object of the preposition are together called a preposition phrase.

Here are the 30 most common prepositions:

The most common preposition is "Of" — it is most frequently used to describe what kind/type/brand you are saying:

e.g. Two cups (yrhat kind) of sugar

Three kilograms (what kind) ofbeef

Both (what?) ofthe dogs are friendly

 

Things to keep in mind about prepositions; Plœpositions must be followed by nouns, pronouns, gerunds or noun clauses: Let's meet at ItOOpøt. (noun) I will go with him. (ptonoun) 1 didn 't understand at what time he wants to meet. (noun clause) Prepositions can have different meanings, depending on the situation, Remember to keep m mind the context/ situation: I will meet at 5:00 (preposition oftitnc) will meet at the statión (ppeposition ofplace) Preposition phrases can descT'ibe a noun or verb: Let's meet at 4:30 (Here, the preposition phrase is describing when we will meet, therefore it is considered an adverb) The store at the corner is the cheapest place to buy Cup Noodle in Ihis neighborhood. (In this case, "at the corner" is describing the store, and therefore it is considered an adjective). Prepositions are connected to the noun that they follow. To separate this, put a comma: I have lived in North America, in Eastern Europe, and in Asia. Prepositions can have more than one object; but the objects must be joined with "and" or "or": I want to live in Buenos Aires and Oslo. She has  TD. If you want to use a verb as the object of the preposition, the verb must be in the gerund (ring) form: I am thinking about quitting smoking. They are talking about meeting. To explain why you did something, it is possible to use a verb in the infinitive form, rather than a preposition. In this case, the verb is not in the gerund tòrm. In this sentence: She went to the store to buy candyt the first "to" introduces a preposition phrase — to the store, The second "to", however, introduces an infinitive explaininc the reason for the trip — to buy candy, You can have many preposition phrases in a row. Each preposition phrase describes the thing immediately before it. If you want the preposition to describe something else, you need to put a comma in front Of it: Let 's meet (on the corner) (ofJane and Bloor Sts). Everybody cheered (á/ t/"' end) (Ófthe meeting).              Hé checked under the bed, the desk, and in the closen                 no monsters.

Exercise 4.1

In the following excerpts from telephone messages, underline the subject once, the verb twice, and put parentheses ( ) around any preposition phrases that you find.

Grammar Point 5 - Prepositions of Place

Prepositions can be used to connect any ideas , for example they can also describe place. This is very useful when describing where you want to meet.

Here are some common prepositions which are used to show location:

Use           with	street (Roy Thompson Hall is on King Ste) corner, when the building is exactly on the corner e.g The Strathc:ona             is the corner of York St and Wellington St.
Use "at" with	corner, when the building IS very near the corner, but not exactly on the corner

e.g City Hall is at the corner ofYork St. and Queen St, street number — when you are giving the exact address of a house or apartment

e.g I live at 479 Jane street

Use "across from" to describe two things on opposite sides of the street

e.g„ Union Station is acrossfrom the Royal York Hotel

Use   With directions — East/West/North/South

e.g Union Stotioa is south ofthe Royal Yórk Hotel

Exercise 5.1

Using this map and the prepositions above, give the locations Of these buildings.

Answer the following questions using the preposition provided.

e.g. Where is the Skydome/Rogers center? (beside)

The Dome is beside the CN Tower,

2.      Where is the Royal Alexandra (Alex) Theater? (on)

3.      Where is the Eaton's Centre? (across from)

4.      Where is the Hockey Hall of Fame? (south Of)

5.      Where is Union Station? (on)

matúfia\

60 Where is the Metro Toronto Convention Centre? (east ot)

7.      Where is Roy Thompson Hall? (across from)

8.      Where is the St. Lawrence Market? (on)

9, Where is the Eaton's Centre? (on)

10. Where is the Skydome /Rogers Centre? (on)

I I. Where is the Royal York Hotel? (across from)

TOEFL Tip: In the reading section, it is very important to be able to draw inferences. This means that the information to answer the question will not be stated in the passage, and you will have to use the information provided to guess the correct answer. In that type of question, prepositions can be a useful tool, because they show the connections between ideas. For example, if the passage states that The river runs "from the South" i we can infer that it runs "to the North". Here are 5 sentences, which are followed by 2 statements each. Choose which Of the two statements is true, based on the information provided by prepositions. Roy Thompson Hall is across from The Princess of Wales Theatre. a)       The two buildings are Close to each other. b)      The two buildings were constructed at roughly the same time. 2 Union Station is east of the C.N. Tower. a)       UmonStation is closcrto Lakc Ontario than the CN Tower. b)      Union Station gets more morning sun. 3. Frank IS at his office. a)        He is using the internet. b)       He may be at his desk, 4, Ottawa is between Montreal and Toronto a)       Toronto is closer to Ottawa than Montreal isw b)      Móntrealis closer to Ottawa than to Toronto, 5. The Royal Ontario Museum is at the corner of Avenue Rd. and Bloor St. a)       The Royal Ontario Múseum has empty space in front of it. b)      There are many streets near the Royal Ontario Museum.

Grammar Point 6 - Prepositions of Time

1. During/for

"During" shows that two events happened at the same time:

Ifell asleep during the movie

I was living in Son Francisco daring the big earthquake.

"For" describes the length of time I sleptfor 2 hours

I haven't seen herfor 5 days.

Exercise 6.1 Choose the better ofthe two prepositions, "during" or 'for".

I I met hermy vacation.

2, They will be in a meetingtwo hours.

3, Please stay herethe afternoon,

4.      She can wait herethe speech.

5.      I'm sorry that I didn't answer your call, but you calleda very important meeting

2. By/until

This is a very simple pair to understand: if there is a change in condition, use

e.g. The package is not here noww It will be here at 5:00pm, The condition Will

Change — from not here to here. Therefore, use the preposition "by": The package be here by 5:00.

e.g. am notfinished now. I will be finished at lunch. The condition will change — from unfinished to finished. Therefore, use the preposition "by". Twillfinish by lunch.

If the condition/situation does not changed, use "until":

e.g. Tom l.vaítiižg now. Twill be waiting ar 5:00. There is no change in condition (wait-wait). TherefOret use the preposition "until":

                  I             until 5900

e.g. Iwork here now. I will work here durinu rhe summer There is no change (work-work). TherefOre, use the preposition "until":

J avi// work here until the summer

Exercise 6.2 Choose the better of the two prepositions: "by" or '$until"

If the package does not arrive6:00 pm, we will have to find another supplier.

2.      Please make sure that nobody leaves the officethe afternoon.

3.      The Offer must be handed intomorrow.

4.      He must wait there6:00.

5, He must be ready to leavethe end of the break.

3.                Through/ throughout

Through — is a preposition of movement

Please go through tire office and down the hall.

It is more to pass throvgh customs i/you cannot speak the language. Throughout — is a preposition of time — it means all the time He is in and out throughout the day.

The airport is busy throughout the year — not only during the summer:

4.                Before/by

Before usually describes a preparation prior to another event, and is more general

You should check departure time before leavingfor the airport,

You should always check the price before handing overyour credit card

                        You must complete the introductory         before starting the intennediflte course.

By usually describes an ending time

Please make sure rharyou arrive by 5:00

                        You have            by this evening,

5.                When you tålk about a holiday, you can say "'on" or "at". "On" means "the specific day", while at" means the general time e,g, On Christmas = on December 25 ^th

At Christmas Late December, early January

Children can only open their presenfs on Chrisfmas morning. (on the ) At Christmas, there is often snow. (the entire time around Christmas)

On New Year's (Day) = January 1"

At New year's = December 26 ^th to early January

It is diJ/ìéult to wake up on New year's. (January T^IJ

                        People          pay pfdeots at New Years (around the tint€)

6.                At the beginning/ in the beginning; At the end/in the end

This is the only case when "at" is more specific than "111"

Use "At the begtnmng/end" when you are talking about a special event, for example a book, movie, relationship, etc. This is followed by the preposition phrase "Of '^t

I didn 't understand the story at the beginning ofthe hook, hut Ifigured il out out halfway through.

Use "In the beginning/end" when you are talking about generalities J didn't like hint time I met hi'", in the good buddies.

7. In time/On time

"In time" means "not late". There is an appointment, or something is beginning, and you arrive before that time,

e.g. Theflight leaves at 7:30, $0 you need to an•ive at 5:30 at least to be in time for customs.

Because ofwork, manyfathers cannot an•ive in timefor their childrens' concerts at school,

"On time" means "at exactly the arranged time". Therefore, if you have an appointment to meet somebody at 7:45, you arrive at 7:45, not 7:44 or 7:46.

e.g. One ofthe rudest things that you can do is to not arrive on timefor dinner. If is normal to arrive latefora party, but notfor a dinner party

Exercise 6.3 Fill in the blank with the appropriate preposition.

1.the beginning of the movie, there is a spectacular sunrise,

2. The first words of the Bible are: the beginning

Even though I checked the departure time on-line, the plane did not leave

time.

4.      Because of the tcrriblc I just barely arrived       time for the

start of the concert.

5.      Bob always had a great excuse for not arriving time. Every time!

8.                Using prepositions to put events in order. There are two common problems when discussing time relationships — one problem deals with two events In the past, and another problem deals with events in the future.

8.1 Events in the past

When you want to say "before now", you can use the word "ago".

e.g. He arrived two days before now = He arrived two days ago.

She was ready two hours before now = She was ready two hoars ago.

DO NOT SAY "He arrived two days before

"She was ready two hours before.

When you want to use a different time, you can use the ptcposition "before"

e.g. I had called two times before yesterday.

They went there twice before last year,

Events in the future

When you are describing events in the future, there is a similar ideav

To show that something will happen "after now", use the preposition 'fin"

               e.g. Iwillfinishten minutes             now I willfinish in ten minutes

I will meet you there halfan hour after now = I will meet you there in halfan

willfinish after ten minutes DOES NOT MEAN I willfinish if' ten minutes

I arrived here three weeks ago, After three days, I had a job. (= I arrived here 21 days ago. 18 days ago, I had a job)

I will wait for two hours„ After that, I will go home in 121 minutes, I will leave),

Exercise 6.4 Fill in the blank with the appropriate word: ago, in, after, or before. (note: you will only need one o/the blanks — the other one will remain empty)

l . Please leave now, and I will meet you thereone hour

2.       He doesn't feel well — he just arrived heretwo days

3.       I'm almost ready — I will be finished20 minutes

She went to Korea last year; and it was very exciting because she had never been awaythat

5. I'm sorry you missed him; he called 2 minutes5:00

Exercise 6.5

In the following sentencesi choose the better Of the prepositions.

Will you be there (by/ throughout) 5? I'm not sure —because of the traffic after work, I'm not sure if I'll be able to make it (at/on) time.

2. If you want to reach the bank (by/until) 3:00, you have to leave (before/until) 2:30.

He is never (in/on) time for anything. If you want him to arrive (at/in) 6100, you have to tell him to arrive (at/ in) 5:30.

4, In order to finish university, people must start studying (before/during) the summer (before/by) starting school

All applications must be submitted on or (before/during) May 14 ^th in order to be considered for the fall semester.

6. (At/in) the beginning of chapter I the book is pretty boring, but (by/until) the end of the second chapter, it becomes really interesting-

Exercise 6.6

In the following paragraphs, choose the better of the two prepositions.

5. (During/For) the last few years, many nations have introduced bans on the commercial catching of whales- Because of this, the numbers have returned to levels that existed (at/in) the beginning of the 20th century. However; (at/ in) the last few years, some fleets have begun whaling again, This has sparked fears that the magnificent humpback whale may disappear (by/until) the end of the 22!'" century, and many countries have stared enforcing bans again,

Grammar Point 7 — Prepositions of Place & Movement

One Of the most common uses Of prepositions is to describe the location Of an object, or to give directions. These are both very simplet once the basics are understood.

I In vs. At

In general, in is more specific — at means in or around. For example, "In school" means in the school building. "At school" means in school, in the playground, on the jungle,gym, on the track, etc.

"11' the OTìced' means inside the office. the office" means in the Office + on the elevator + in the cafeteria + in the smoking lounge, etc.

+ Remember: "Home" means house garage + front yard + back yard + garden.

Also, a "home" can be a house, apartment, condominium, roonvrent, etce "Home" is an idea, rather than a specific place Therefore, with home you should always use "at"

2. On vs. In (transpottation)

When you describe public transportation, use the preposition " on"

e.g. On the subwey, the bus, on the plane, the an the boat. When you describe private transportation, use "in"

            e.g. In          in thejet, in the canoe, in the taxi, in the coach

There are three common exceptions:

With foot, motorcycle and bicycle use "onⁱ'.

3. On vs. At

The relationship between On and At is very similar to the relationship between In and At — At is more general, while On is more specific.

Look at these examples:

"On the corner" means exactly where two streets cross.

"At the corner" means somewhere near or on the corner.

"On the beach" means really on the beach, near the water.

"At r/ie beach" means on the beach or in the store or in the car or in the water,

4. In, On, and At— other uses:

Use "In" for Countries

Cities

Provinces/ States

Prison/Hospital

Use "On" for Streets, Avenue

In Canada, in Japan

In Toronto, in Seoul

In Ontario, in Missouri

OH Jane st., on Main st.

Rivers (means near) My house is on the Humber River. the Beach

              Use "At" for Street Number           Al 477 Jane St.

Exercise 7.1 Choose the best of the two prepositions In each sentence.

I'm sorry, Halyna isn't here now, she's somewhere (at/in) her office.

2, I can't find my Blackberry anywhere — I hope I didn't leave it (in/on) the subway.

3.      She just bought a new cottage; it's quite amazing, and right (in/on) the beach.

4.      They live (at/ on) Jane Streett (at/ on) number 180.

We will be waiting for you somewhere (at/on) the corner of Bloor and Yongew

5. Near/nearby

Near is a preposition which shows a position — close to something: They live near the school, so they don't need car.

Nearby is an adjective or adverb, not a preposition — it means near here: Is there a bank nearby?

DO NOT SAY "neañyhere".

6.      In/ inside

In is used in a general sense - no specific space:

I live in Canada,

Inside is used in a very specific/closed space:

There are no mice inside thiS mom right now.

7.      Below'under

Below shows that there is space between the objects:

The other office is on thefloor below ours.

The people who live below us are usually veO' quiet.

Under shows that there is contact between the objects:

There is something under the book

He tried to hide something under the top sheet,

S. Here are two lists of prepositions which are often confused.

The first is a list of preposition pairs prepositions of place, and the corresponding prepositions of motion

Preposition of place; Preposition of motion; into out           out of onto

e.g.       He is in class (preposition ofplace)

She walked into the room, (preposition ofmoiion)

The tea is on the table. (preposi/ion ofplace)

Please pur the teo onto the table. (preposition ofmotion)

This is a list of prepositions which can be used both as prepositions of place and prepositions Of motion:

behind	over
past	below
along	across

e.g. Theparkiug Ior is behind rite post office. (preposition cfplace)

The kids ran behind thefenc.e. (preposition ofmotton)

            Watk along Yónge St. and you        come to the /áke (preposition

There ore trees along Bloor St. between Jane and Runnymede: (preposition ofp!oce)

Giving directions

Giving directions in English is very Simple because directions are Simply a combination of small sentences and easy ideas, not one complex idea,

The most common phrase used when you give directions is: "go" + preposition + object

GO down street, past the bank' go Ic/i at the lights.

Another very common technique is to use the combination• "you will see/you will come to„. go

              e.g. You will come to a park —go left.

You will come to a 'T" intersection —go right,

It is also common to let people know what kind of landmarks they will pass on the way —just to make them feel more comfortable.

            e.g.       You will pass the CN Tower on rhe right.

You will see a big glass building on the left — keep going.

The compass directions North and South are usually said ' 'up" and "down"

e.g. GO up University Ave. GO down Yonge St.

Things to remember about giving directions: don't say •please", or "you". Simply "go south," "turn right," etc. don't use the preposition "to" with: right    south left straight east back         west don't forget articles: when you say a specific thing, say "the" Turn right thefirst light. when you are not talking about a familiar thing, say a e.g You will see a school on the left don't use articles with names GO north on kkæYonge St.

Exercise 7.2

Look at the following map. Give directions from various locations to various locations. eg The Opera House — The Horizon

         Go south on Bay Street. You will pass College Park on your left. It's on the left.

Give directions from — Air Canada Centre to St. Michael's Hospital; Four Season's

Hotel to Eaton's Centre; The Courtyard Hotel to AGO; Marriot Hotel to Roy Thompson Hall

Grammar Point 8 - Various Pairs

l . When you are making a plan or preparation about a holiday, you can say "for" or

            e.g.         We are going awayfor our anniversary.

means that we are celebrating by taking a trip

Wé are going away at our anniversary means we will leave that time

2.      Because & Because of

Because Of is a preposition — it is followed by a noun/pronoun or noun clause I apn here because ofthe job offer,

Because is a conjunction — it is followed by a subject and verb I came here because this is a good school.

3.      Between & Among

Between indicates a choice of two things

The work is split between the two secætaries.

Among indicates a choice of more than two things

AllJive ofthem split the chores among Themselves.

4. Despite & In spite of

Despite shows contrast, surpristng situation do not use with "of"

In spite of shows contrast, surprising situation must be fOlIowed by "of"

The key point is "of': don't say "despite of'*

5, Instead Of & Instead

These two prepositions have the same meaning, but "instead" goes at the end of the sentencet while "instead of' needs an object,

            e.g.   He chose to go to Europe instead ofAsiafor his vacation.

HiSfuther wanted kim to be doctor instead ofá designer.

                        She        't       to go to Asia — she wonted go to Europe instead

Her mother didn want her to be a dancer — she wanted her to be a lawyer instead.

6.      Because of & From

Both of these prepositions describe a cause. If you want to say that a thing caused the result, it is better to say "because of"

            e.g.        The chair is wet because ofthe rain.

They are upset because ofthe news

If you want to show that an action caused the result, it is better to say "from "

He is sickfrom working underground

7.      For & the infinitive

When you want to explain the Itason you did something, there are two common ways: first, you can show a result, In this case, use the preposition "for".

                   I came herefor business

I came herefor a rest

second, you can use a verb in the infinitive form to show what you will do.

            e.g.       I came here to relax.

She went to get cigars.

Exercise 8.1

Choose the better of the two prepositions.

l . The choice of company trip is (among/between) New York and Toronto.

2.                 She went to the store (to buy/fOr buytng) stamps, but hasn't returned.

3.                 I don't want a big cottage —just a nice quiet place (to relax/for relaxing)4. The dog is panting heavily (because of/from) running so hard.

5. (Despite of/in spite of) the rain, the picnic was lots of fun.

All three of the finalists can split the prize (among/between) them.

7.      Excuse me, I need an outlet (for plugging/to plug) in my laptop.

8.      His back is sore (because of/from) the new exercise.

9.      They didn't apply to the university in this city — they applied to the further one (instead/instead Of),

10, She will have to take two weeks off (because of/from) that injury,

S. Information

When you are describing an information source, you need to use the appropriate preposition:

In

the news the newspaper	the Internet
the media	the radio
a magazine	a website
a report	the show

Exercise 8.2

Fill in the Appropriate prepositions.

1.

Did you hear the news?

Hear it? I didn't hear about it. I read about itthe newpapers. I also saw it TV last night. What do you think?

Well,           not sure, I don't believe everything I readthe newspaper.

Sure, and I don't believe everything that I readthe internet either„ But something this big — if it's both    the 'net and    the papers, it must be at least panially true.

2.

I read something interestingthe TV website yesterday,

Really, what?

well, I think you'll be reading about itthe newspapers — especially _ the tabloid newspapers soon. Once a story like this is the media, it will stay there for a long time.

8.3

Tn the following passage, put parentheses ( ) around any preposition phrase, and fix any mistakes.

Line 1 Line 5 Line 10 Line 15 Line 20

The giving of gifts has become quite a problem for many people, especially men, over the last decade. It seems that now, throughout the entire year, there is always a reason for a sale. Christmas, Easter, Thanksgivtng Day, Groundhog Day, Clean your Car Day — every day is another rcason for people to go to stores and spend. And the amount of money that is spent on advertising for these events is enough to amaze or shock anybody During the 1960s and 1970s, there was a phrase to describe giftgiving: "It's the thought that counts". The feeling behind the gift was important to the receiver - more important than the amount of dollars spent on the gift. Why the change in attitude? Are presents made by hand — meals cooked from scratch - not ofvalue anymore? Are they not as good as those bought in the store? Did the end of the 1970s and the beginning of the 1980s signal the end of creativity and originality? When it comes to  it is more important to try than to do. In any country, the feelings behind the present are still the tñOSt important thing. The useftilness of gifts will never be as important as the reason for their being given. Nomatter how hard advertisers try to convince people that they need to spend a lot of money on presents, they will never really

succeed in eliminating hand-made gifts.

.34

8.4

Complete the passage with an appropriate preposition. Use the prepositions in the box on the left.

of in of over with to with on out in in of in on on to from in on in in at

International Manners One the most difficult things cultural studies is the questionmanners. People all the world do the same things — they go work, play their kids, go vacations and hang their friends. However, different countries, people do the same things different ways, Take the example       eating: Canada, having a meal           the subway           the way work or          a meeting is completely normal,           Japan, howevert eating           the street is considered rude. The important question is not "Is it rude?", but rather "Is it the way it is done HERE?" The impottant thing to keep  mind is to be respectful. If people see that you try but make mistakes, they will not get upset. However, if you always try to do things  the same way that you do home, be ready to not have any friends

8.5

Here is a series Of paragraphs which are very well written, but do not have any prepositions. Fill in the blanks with the appropriate preposition where necessary.

1.

According  a recent survey, many  the people who live _ big cities are actually healthier than  people who live  the suburbs. There are many  reasons this. The first one is that people who livecities usually walk more — the store,work, and eventhe subway. Peoplewho live  the suburbs, the other hand, walk less and tend  drive more places. Another reasonthe differencehealth is that the food which is available the city is usually more expensive than the food the suburbs, so

people don't eat  much  it. People  the suburbs can go  huge "outlet malls",  which they can buy huge bags  potato chips, nachos and cookies Becausethat, they always have a lotfoodthe house, so they eat more. Thirdly, becausethe lackpublic transitthe suburbs, people who live there tenddrive more and walk less. They sitthe car all the time the average drive work is 65 minutes — and walk less. This leads problems.

2.

The House with Chimaeras, or Horodetsky House, is a major Art Nouveau building

 Kyiv, the capital  Ukraine. It was built  the period         1901 and

1902  noted architect Vladislav HorodetŠky, Who was known  the Gaudi

 Kyiv. The building derives its name  its ornate decorations depicting various scenes  exotic animals and huntlng scenes, because Horodetsky liked hunting. It is situated  NO. 10; Bankova Street,  from the President Ukraine's Office  the historic Pechersk neighborhood.  2005, it has been used a presidential residence official ceremonies.

Grammar Point 9 — Adjectives

Adjectives describe nouns — without them, life would be very boring, However, nouns can have many qualities. There can be many nouns in one sentence. To avoid confusion, specific rules have developed about adjectives. The important ones are:

Points to remember: Adjectives always stand before the noun that they describe. Red ball Huge canyon Adjectives go between the article and noun ie. articles are always the first adjective A majestic tree The crowded busy city Adjectives are never plural, regardless of the number of the noun that they describe The tall tree The till! trees This can be confusing when you are describing things which contain pieces: if an airplane has 250 seats, it is 250 seat (not seats) airplane if a gifl has had 8 birthday parties, she is an eight year (1101 years) old girl. To remember this, keep in mind the key idea — what you are talking about, 1-00k at this sentence: It is a 250 seat airplane. In that sentence, there is one key idea — the airplane. Thereforev use the singular form. However, if you want to emphasize that the girl has lived for five years, say 'She is/ìve years old", that stresses the five individual years.

Grammar Point 10 - Comparatives

Often. you want to describe more than one thing, and show a relationship between them. You can show how they compare to one another, by using the comparative form of adjectives.

The comparative form Of adjectives is quite simple to mike. It is determined by the number of syllables an adjective has.

1 Syllable	2 Syllables		3 or more s llables
	ends in	doesn't end in
add "-er" to the base form	add "-er" to the base form	add "more" in front ofthe base form	add "more" in front of the base form
for exam le	for exam le	for exam le:	for exam le:
small + smaller	noisy noisier	crowded more crowded	expensive + more   ensive
new newer	dirty* dirtier	modern more modern	majestic • more ma estic
cheap* cheaper	smelly smellier	complex more com lex	impressive more      essive
close closer	busy + busier	useless + more useless	beautiful more beautiful

There are always exceptions. Here is a list of the most common:

Better

Worse

More fun

Older (can he used for anything)

Elder (used tar brothers or sisters only)

Far             Farther (used mostly for distance)

Further (means deeper - used for research, investigation)

38

Things to keep in mind when you are making comparison structures: Make sure that you use "than" to introduce the second thing you are companng e.g. correct—Mt. Rushmore is mona crowded than Mt. Washington. wrong — Mt. Rushmore is more crowded Mt. Washington Make sure you compare things which are the same:            e.g.       wrong The hotels near Mt. Rushmon:: are more expensive than Mt. Washington correct - The hotels near Mt, Rushmore are more expensive than those nearMt. Washington It is possible to use "less" with any adjective — one, two or three syllable. In many situations, however, it might make more sense to change the word: eg less warm cooler less small bigger jess expensive cheaper less noisy quieter less dangerous -gafèr

Exercise 10.1

Make sentences LISIng the prompts With comparative forms Of adjectives, as in the example eg The Grand Canyon; far, Mt. Rushmore

The Grand Canyon isfanher than Mt. Rushmore

Mt, Rushmore, far, Mt, Washington

2. The Grand Canyon, hot' Yellowstone National Park

3, The Grand Canyon, hot, Mt, Washington

4, Package tour to Mt, Rushmore, expensive, package tour to Mt, Washington

5. The Mississippi River, warm, Yellowstone National Park

6.	The Mississippi River, dirty, Yellowstone National Park
7.	Yellowstone National Park, crowded, Mt. Washington

8, Mt. Rushmor€% historic, Mt, Washington

I l. The Grand Canyon, wide, Mississippi River

12. Mt. Rushmott% high, Mt. Washington

13.	Mt. Washington, high, tunnel trees in Yosemite
14.	The Grand Canyon, far, the Mississippi River
15.	Toronto, crowded, New York City.
16.	Thai curry, spicy, kirnchi
17,	Chocolate cake, healthy, chipsl
18,	English, difficult, Physics

19. Pit Bull, dangerous, cobra

Using the prompts, make sentences about these tourist destinations, as in the example.

e.g. Mt. Rushmore, close, Yellowstone, peaceful

Mount Rushmore is closer than Yellowstone National Park, but Yellowstone is more peacefil/.

The Mississippi River, peaceful, Mt Rushmore, historic

2.	The Grand Canyont majestic, Mt. Washington, challenging
3,	Mt. Rushmore, historic, The Grand Canyon, old
	The tunnel trees, impressive, Mt. Washington, close
5.	Grand Canyon tour, beautiful, Mississippi River Cruise, cheap
	Mt. Rushmore, close, Yosemite National Park, quiet

7. The Tunnel Trees, amazing, Mt. Rushmore, spectacular

Use your own adjectives to compare these two things — say one good thing about each Cotton shirts, silk shirts.

2.	Big dogs, small dogs
3,	Sports cars minivans
4.	Eating in a restaurant, eating at home.
	Big weddings, small weddings.
	Hockey, soccer
	Email, hand-written letters
	Condominiums, houses
9.	Big cities, small towns

10. Modern art, classical art

42

Read the passage. Circle any adjectives you find and fix any errors.

Vacations in the United States

Line I Line 5 Line 10 Line 15 Line 20 Line 25

Every year, millions of Americans decide to spend theirs summer vacations "at home" and explore some of the majestic nature that their country has to offer. The variety of the geography of the United States impressive is. The east coast impressive is because of mountains. The Appalachian Trail, which extends from Alabama in the southern all the way to the Canadian Border in the north, never ceases to awe, Mount Washington, named after the first president, is the first mountain which had a road built all the way to the summit. Today, many visitors to this Vermont landmark purchase the famous This Car Climbed Mount Washington" bumper sticker. A bit farther inland is the world-famous Mount Rushmore. Carved at the time of the Depression, this mountain features the faces of four US presidents, Washington, Jefferson, Lincoln and Roosevelt carved into it. It is probably the only reason to visit South Dakota. A cruise down slows the Mississippi River has to be the ultimate in Amencana. Ever since it was immortalized by Mark Twain in "The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn" and "Tom Sawyer"l thousands have tried to re-construct their famouses journeys. Today, of course, it is much less dangerouser and usually ends with a stop in the famous New Orleans "French Quarter'lv The west features two amazings National Parks: Grand Canyon and Yosemite. Yosemite boasting the amazing "Tunnel Trees" — giant redwood trees which are large enough to drive through, Some of the trees are over 225 fèets high! The Grand Canyon was carved by the Colorado River and makes its way from the Rockies to the bay of Califórniar

It is very easy to the entire US as one country and to forget just how much of a difference there really is between Texas and New York, between Vermont and New México -

43

Grammar Point 1 1 Order of Adjectives

If you have many adjectives in one sentence, you must put them into the correct order, or it will sound strange:

Opinion adjectives (nice, beautiful, good) go first

Fact adjectives (old, expensive, leather) go after that, in the followtng order:

Size Age Color Country of Origin Material

e.g. Big new black Italian                                            leather sofa

It is rare to have many adjectives in one sentence, describing one noun. An easy way to remember them is the saying:

"A little old lady had Canadian wool gloves"

The pairs "little-old" and "Canadian-wool" must be together — theref01e, if you want to add a color, it must go between these pairs.

Exercise 11.1

Each group of sentences is followed by a box fúll of adjectives, Use at least two adjectives for each noun. You can use the same adjectives more than once.

1.

The tunnel trees of Yosemite park are                               and

2.      Mount Washington is not only

3.      Many people don't know about the Shenandoah River.

4.      The  Mount Rushmore was carved at the height of the Great Depression. 5, The road to Mi. Washington is

amazing — big — cold — impressive

imposing — long

old — tall - warm

2.

Learning English is

2.      English grammar is

3.      Living in Toronto is

4.      Camping m Canada

5.      In general, I think English is

3.

4.

1.     I like music that is

2.     I like books that are

3.     I don't like people that are

4.     I like T.V. shows that are

5.     I like movies that are

Grammar Point 12 Participle Adjectives

It is sometimes important to describe a noun in relation to other nouns in how it affects them or how they affect it. In this situation, verbs can easily be changed to adjectives - they are called participle adjectives.

The trick to understanding participle adjectives is to remember what DOES the action, and what RECEIVES the action. The DOER of the action is described by the present participle "-ing"; the RECEIVER of the action is described by the past participle

Look at these examples:

"The star shines" — in this case, the star is the DOER of the action. Therefore, if we want to use the verb as an adjective, we would use the present participle: The shining star.

"The sun is setting" — in this case, the sun is the DOER. Therefore, the present participle is used.

The setting sun

"The astronaut has repaired the telescope" — The telescope is the RECEIVER Of the action, therefore if we want to use the verb as an adjective, we need to use the past participle,

The repaired telescope.

Don't be confused by the passive voice:

"The star was destroyed by a comet" - the star is the RECEIVER of the action even though it is the subject of the sentence, and therefore the past participle is used:

The destroyed stan

Note: in this case, it would also be very logical to say the destroying comet

"The nebula was photographed by the rocket" becomes             Thephorogrgphednebula

The photographing rocket.

Things to remember about participle adjectives: Participle adjectives are the same as regular adjectives — they must stand before the noun they describe and they must always be singular e.g. The unexplored moons NOT the moon Past participle adjectives ( -ed endings) can only be made from transitive verbs (verbs that take direct objects — the difference between transitive and intransitive verbs will be discussed in detail in unit 3 e.g. "discover" is a transitive verb — an astronaut discovered a planet discoveredplaner "explode" is an intransitive verb — the Star is exploding + the exploded star is wrong Do not include objects in participle adjectives, if the verb has an object. The            e.g.                    do not say ' 'the approaching the planet" satellite The boy is.s•tingrheapp/e; do not say "the eating the apple Y' boy note: in these situations, you can change that into an adjective clause: •the satellite that is approaching theplaner The boy who is eating the apple

Names af the planets

The English names of the planets came from Latin and the Roman names. With the exception of Sedna, all the planets are named after Roman gods. The names are:

Mercury — Venus — Earth — Mars — Jupiter — Saturn - Uranus - Neptune — Pluto Sedna

Here is a silly rhyme, If you remember this sentence, you can use the first letter of each word to remind you of the name of the planet,

Mån Very Early Madc Jars Stand Up Néarly Perpendicular, Silly

Exercise 12.1

Change these sentences into phrases with participle adjectives, as in the example. Describe the bold word.

e.g. The moon orbits the planet the orbiting moon

1. The meteor approaches the planet

2.	The sun is exploding
3.	The planets arc forming
4,	The Star shines brightly
5.	The moons rotate slowly
6,	The sun sets slowly.
7.	The rocket is returning.
	The astronauts completed the mission
9.	The astronauts are returning

10. The satellite circles the planet

I l. The rocket booster is fálling off.

12. The ship recovered the capsule.

13. The astronaut photographed the asteroidv

14. Scientists collected the samples.

Exercise 12.2

In the following passage, choose the correct participle adjective. Remember consider which noun the adjective describes, and then consider if that noun is doing or receiving the action of the verb.

Line 1 Line 5 Line 10 Line 15 Line 20

Scientists studying (discovering/discovered) dinosaur skeletons could not come up with a suitable explanation for the sudden change in climate which caused their extinction. Astronomers, however, have proposed the (following/fòllowed) explanation: a meteor strike. The theory is quite logical, A meteor, approximately I km in diameter struck the earth and caused a massive dust cloud. The (rising/risen) dust then created a "blanket" in the atmosphere which prevented (approaching/approached) rays from the sun from heating the earth. This "Dust Cloud" theory was not accepted by (reviewing/reviewed) scientists when it was first proposed. Many climatologists believed that some other, perhaps magnetic cause, triggered the sudden change. These scientists were usually supported by geologists. However, newly- (discovering/discovered) geological evidence supports the Meteor Theory. Pictures from space of Hudson's Bay have revealed the possible location of a possible impact A crater appears near the south-eastern tip of the Bay; and a meteorite large enough to make such a crater would indeed be large enough to create a dust cloud capable of causing the (specúlating/speculated) Climate Change. Because of this new view, many astronomets are working on new methods of preventing this from happening again. All

(approaching/approachcd) meteors are labeled and monitored by special (monitoring/ monitored) stations. Luckily, (observing/observed) astronomers predict that no (approaching/approached) meteor or comet is going to pass near enough to us to be of any worry.

$19

Grammar point 13 - Word Parts

Most English vocabulary Cat least 50%) comes from Latin. In order to be able to understand —and guess the meaning of — very many words, it is worth learning and getting comfortable using these word parts.

Basically, all word parts can be classified into three groups: Prefixes, Roots and Suffixes. There are very many prctixes, roots and suffixes, so we will only focus on the most common ones here.

Common Prefixes

Prefixes stand at the beginning ofwords, They do not have to be attached to latin words, and their meaning will not change.

Prefix		Meanin			Prefix		Meanin		Prefix	Mean •
aero-					h	er-	over		s ch-	mind
ante-		before					under		u ad-	four
anti-			ainst		in-		into		nin-	five
auto-		self					not		semi-	half
bene-		ood/well			inter-		between		sol-	alone
		two			mal-		bad		sub-	under
		with			meso-		middle		s	to ether
con -		to ether			mono-		one		tele-	afar
con-		against					mistakenl		tri-	three
		out			nova-		new		trans-	throu h/ across
	ui-				st-		after			not
extra-		from outside					before

Common Roots

These come from Latin. You arc probably tåmiliar with many of them.

Root

Root

Mea

Root

Meanin

astro

ce

eo

earth

sect

cut

audio

hear

a h/ am

write

se u

follow

cede /cede

habit

live

watch

chronos

time

•ac/•ect

throw

stella

Star

mis/mit

send

build

cosmo

cred

believe

hon

sound

therm

heat

demo

eo le

hot

vac

dict

sa

ort

vert

duc/ duct

ull/lead

break

ven

come

fer

vis

see

fluct

scrib/scri

write

voc

Common Suffixes

Here we will focus only on the suffixes which change the word parts — noun/adjective,

etc„.

Noun — thing		Noun —	Adjective	Verb
-ism			-ic	-ize
-tion				-ate
		-ian	-al
			-ant/ -ent	-en
-ance/-ence		-ist	-ful
-dom			-ive
-ia
-010			-ful
-ment			-ile
-ion			-less
-om			-ial
			-ian
			-able/ -ible
			-OUS

Irregular singular/ plural forms

Many words in English, which have been directly translated from Latin or Greeks have kept the native forms, and maintatn the singular/plural forms. Here is a list of irregular structures:

Singular endin	Plural ending	Examples
	-i (pronounced "eye")	cactus/ cactl; apparatus/apparati; nucleus (nuclei
	-a (pronounced "ah')	stratum/strata; datum/data; bacterium/bacteria
-a	ounced 'u	a /al e; nebtila/nebulae•
-ex or—ix	-es (pronounced "eeze")	matrix/ matrices; index/indices; vortex/vortices
	nounced '"ah	criterion/criteria• automaton/ automata
	-i              nuanced 'ice"	libretto/libretti w virtuoso/ virtuosi

* • this form is used only for words which are translated from Italian

Exercise 13.1

Write the meaning for these words

Interstellar

2.	Transcontinental
3.	Geocentric
4,	Binary (star system)
5.	Constellation

Cosmology

S. Photosphere

9.      To Trisect

10. To Conduct

I I. Prediction

12. To cohabitate

13. Evocative

14. Immorphable

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Exercise 13.2

Try to create words which would describe these situations, as in the example. eg a train that goes acpos:s o continent transcontinental train

1.      A person who studies astronomy

2.      Something from outside the earth (ends in "estrial")

3.      Something which is sent across space

4.      Not believable (ends in —ible)

5.      (distance) between galaxies

6.      Carry through (long distance)

7.      TO pull together

8.      Carry through (long distance) Il

9.      Cut into two pieces

Under ground (ends in —ian)

11. Break out (out break)

12. Send through a long distance

13. The thing which is sent through a long distance

14. Something that follows another thing together

Grammar Point 14 Adjective Clauses

In many situations, it is necessary to describe something in great detail — and sometimes an entire sentence is required to make sure that the item you are describing is very clear. In this case, an entire sentence can be added to a main clause — because it is describing a noun, it is called an Adjective Clause". (A clause is group of words that has a subject and verb.)

There are many types Of adjective clauses, and we will discuss each Of them in turn. The first few may appear simple, but it will become very complex very quickly, so it is important to review things which may already be familiar to you.

Look at this situation:

That is a building. I like it. The second sentence gives information about the building. The information is "I like the building". The pronoun "it" means "the building." The entire second sentence gives information about the word "building. " Therefore, the entire second sentence is an adjective for the word "building". However, it must be clearly attached to the first sentence. Attaching a sentence to a noun is very simple — all you need is the appropriate connection. In this case, you are describing a noun-thing, and therefore your connection will be the word "which" "Which" represents "it" — therefore "it" is not mentioned again. The new structure is very simple: Thai is the building {which I like}.

The same can be done to describe a person:

That is the man. I met him at a party yesterday. Because you are describing a person, you cannot use the pronoun "which use the pronoun "whom"      That is the man {whom met at a pavry yesteniay	you must

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When you are describing things and people you can use the pronoun "that":

That is the house {that I want to buy}. That is the person {that I talked to}.

Things to remember about adjective clauses: They always immediately fi)llow the noun that they are describing e.g. The building {which is at the corner} is a historical monument not The building is a historical monument {which is at the corner}. not Which is at corner, the is a hist0/ica/ Adjective clauses can describe any noun in a sentence — the subject, object, complement, etc.            e.g.       The temple was beautiful. I saw it in Tokyo. The temple {which saw in Tokyo} was beautiful                         I     show youpictures. I rook them in Morocco. Twill show you thepicttares {that T took in Morocco}, Every adjective clause must follow the same pattern: connector + subject + verb The most common connector is "that" — it can be used for both people and things:            e.g.        That is the building {that Frank Lloyd Wright designed). She is the woman {that Istudied with l. He is the man {that designed tire hotel}. That is the hotel {that he designed}w When a noun is followed by an adjective clause, it often needs the definite article.            e.g.       She is a woman. f sold her the house. She is the woman whom sold the house Traditionally, in this type of adjective clause, the connector for people was "whom". However, in modern conversational English, this has been replaced by "who" or "that".            e.g.        Thal is the man whom f           about. (traditional) That is the man that spoke to. (inodern convenationai)

Type 1 adjective clauses

When describing things, use the connectors "which" or "that"v Both are equally acceptable, but in everyday speech, "that" is more common. When you are describing people, use the connector "whom" or "that". In everyday speech, "that" is most common.

e.g. There is a building next to the school. I like the building.

•Þ There is a building {which I likel next to the school  There is a building Ohat I like: next to the school,

e.g. The CN TOwer is a Toronto landmark. Everybody should visit that landmark + The CN Tower is a TOronto landmark {whiCh everybody should visit} + The CN Tower is a Toronto landmark {that everybody should visit}.

Exercise 14.1

Combine these sentences into longer sentences. Use the second sentence as an adjective clause.

That is the church. Roman builders built it.

2.	This is the Cathedral. 1 love it.
3.	Churches have big windows. German architects built those churches.
4.	Concrete is a strong material. Roman builders discoveted concrete.
	Arches are pointed@ Gothic architects designed those arches
6,	The woman designed the Bell Centre, I introduced her to your
	This is the building. Pablo Picasso designed it.
	That is the museum. Andrew Lloyd Wright designed it.
	That is rhe temple. The Athenians used it as a bank.

10. That is the dome. Michelangelo designed it.

Exercise 14.2

In the following passage, put brackets } around any adjective clauses that you find.

Line I Line 5 Line 10 Line 15 Line 20 Line 25

Architecture, in the modern sense of the word, started with the construction of ancient temples which were built by the ancient Egyptians, Although many buildings were built before that time, the records which people kept about them are very scarce and don't give us any specific information that wc can use to reconstruct those buildings e After the Egyptians came the Greeks. The temples that the Greeks built are the oldest stylized buildings in Europe, They were built mostly as temples to the gods and goddesses that the Greeks worshiped, and also as homes for the well off citizens. The temples which the Greeks built have a very distinct style. Actually, most of the buildings from the time of the ancient Greeks can be classified into one of three "orders" according to the time that builders bullt it. The oldest order is Doric, followed by Ionic and then by Corinthian. When the Roman Empire came to dominate Europe, the Romans were wise enough to learn everything that the Greeks had learned. The Romans also made their own contributions, most notably the curved arch. The secret to the arch was the "keystone" — a stone which masons cut Into a special shape, and which the builders placed at the top Of the arch. Without this stone, the entire arch would collapse. When the Roman Empire fell, people wanted to try something new, and a new style of architecture developed — Gothic. This type grew in Northern Europe, among the Goths. The buildings that Goths built feature very large windows and pointed arches. These were two Innovations that Getman architects came up with to help make their buildings uniqye and beautiful, The cathedrals that the Goths built are some of the most visited

buildings in Europe, They are also the places that people are most likely to photograph.

Type 2 Adjective Clauses

In some situations, the noun that you want to describe is the subject in the adjective clause. In this case, the connector is also the subject. Look at these examples:

The Gothic architecture style is my favorite. It originated in Germany. The second sentence wilt be used as an adjective clause to describe gothic architecture. However, in the adjective clause, gothic architecture — it — is the subject. In this case, the subject becomes the connector: The Gothic architecture style lwhich originated ia Germanyl is myfavorite (the connector "which" is also the subject)

Many people don't understand modernism. Modernism uses very much concrete. Many people don understand modernism {which uses very much concrete}.

This can also be used to describe people:

Architects were In Greece. They started using marble for buildings.  The architects {who started using marble/or buildings; were in Greece. (the connector "who" is also the subject)

Things to remember about type Il adjective clauses: The vefb in the adjective Clause must agree with the noun it is describing evg. The buildings {that are over there} are new (the adjective clause describes "buildings" so the verb must be plural) The building {that is over here} is old. (the adjective clause describes "building" so the verb must be singular)

Exercise 14.3

Combine these simple sentences into more complex sentences. Use the second sentence as an adjective clause.

There are buildings in Rome. They have round windows.

2.	There are buildings in Germany. They have pointy spires.
3,	There are Old Roman buildings. 'They have very small wmdows.

4, There are many huge stained glass windows. They are symbols of gothic architecture.

5. Buildings have no arch. They are Older than Roman buildings.

It is easy to recognize Greek buildings by their roof. The roof has no arch

7. Many churches are built in the shape of a cross. Those churches are in Europe.

Many old windows are small. They are in Roman buildings.

9.      Many houses in Toronto are narrow and have high ceilings, Those houses are in the Victorian style.

10. There are many buildings in Europe. Those buildings are Older than Canada.

I l, There are many old churches in Europe, Those churches have subterranean passages,

Exercise 14.4

In the following passage, put brackets { } around any adjective clauses you find.

Line I Line 5 Line 10 Line 15 Line 20

The two most common architectural styles that are found in Europe are the Roman and the Gothic. One that is often overlooked is the Victorian style, The Victorian style of architecture was very popular during the reign of Queen Victoria, who ruled for over 70 years. During her reign, England was the lead "superpower" of the world. The British were very fond of saying "the Sun never sets on the British Empire". Unfortunately, the architectural style which developed during this time was not very exciting. The feature that is most often associated with Victorian architecture is the narrowness of the houses. They feel like people who are standing on a crowded train. The people who designed these buildings were probably feeling exactly like that. However, the houses that were built at this time are also very tall. This may seem like a way that the designers can make up for the lack Of width, however the height only leads to staircases that never end. The view that you get from the top floor Of Victorian houses is quite nicei however the climb that you must endure to arrive there almost makes it not worth while. The designers who worked during the Victorian era gave us one more very common feature: the row-house. This is commonly known as

"town-houses" in North America, These row-houses that look like they are all jammed together allowed so many millions to move to the big cities and allowed the industrial revolution which changed the world to happen.

Type 3 Adjective Clauses

It is important to remember that adjective clauses give more information about nouns, in relation to other nouns.

When the noun that you are describing is the object of a preposition in the adjective clause, you should keep the same relation in the new sentence.

That is the street. I live on that street, "that street" is the object of the preposition "on". Traditionally, the correct way to combine these sentences was I. move the preposition to the beginning of the adjective clause and 2. use the appropriate connector— "which" for things or "whom" for people That is the street {on which I live}.

This was because it is considered incorrect to end a sentence With a preposition (because prepositions always need an object)

She is the woman. Î told you about her.

+ She is the woman {about whom Itoldyou}.

He is the man. I spoke to him

             He is the          Ito whom Ispoke}.

That is the building. I wrote a report about it.

 That is the building {about which I wrote a report}.

Today, however, it is more common to leave the word order the same as it is in the second sentence.

She is the woman that f toldyou about.

He is the man that Jspoke to,

That is the building that T wrote report about.

Pattern to look for: When you see noun + preposition

which/that/whom, it is a type 3 adjective clause

Exercise 14.4

Combine these sentences into complex sentences. Use the second sentence as an adjective clause. Write two forms for each sentence.

That is the city. Michelangelo was born in it.

2,	This is a street. Måny famous churches are on it.
3.	That is a cathedral. There is a famous labyrinth in it.

Greece is a country. The Romans learned ftotn it.

5. Rome is a country, The Goths learned from it,

Morocco is a country. The Romans imported marble from it.

Spain is a country. You can see many architectural styles in it.

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8 That is the book. I wrote my thesis about

9. That is the tree. Sparrows live in it.

10, He is the man. The news is about him.

I L That is the staircase. You must go up it,

12. She is the director. You need to speak to her.

13. That is the car. He will tell you about it.

14. That is the church. I got married in it.

Type 4 Adjective Clauses

In some situations, connectors can be used to add information to the adjective clause.

Look at this example; The Middle Ages Here rhe time tat which Gothic architecture popular}, The connector is "at which", and it describes the time. The structures "at/in/on/during + which" can be replaced by "when" •Þ The Midd/é Ages were time {when Gothic was very popular). e.ge 'The Renaissance is the time {at which Roman architecture became popular ogaiìð } , The Renaissance is the time {when Roman archúecture became popular again
	Look at this example: Rome is the city {in which the largest ceramic dome was built}. In this adjective clause, the connector is "in which", and describes the place. The structures "in/at/on + which" can be replaced by "where" Rome is the city {where the largest ceramic dome was built}. e.g.       Paris is the city tin which theJirst univenity was established in Europe}. Paris is the place {where thefirst university was established in Europe).

Remember — "when" and "where" represent preposition phrases, so they can never be the subject of a sentence. The connectors "where" and "when" must be followed by a subject.

            Saudi Arabia is the country where is             is wrong

Kuala Lumpur is the city where is the tall tower. is wrong

Exercise 14.6

Combine these sentences into complex sentences. Use the second sentence as an adjective clause. Be sure to use the appropriate connector.

Egypt is the country. All western architecture started from that place.

2.	Greece is the country. Marble buildings first appe¿ued In that place.
3,	Greece is the country. Many ancient temples still stand in that country.

Seven thousand years ago was a time. The Egyptians built their pyramids at that

5. The renaissance was a time. A Roman revival took place at that time.

7. The Victorian Era was a time. Many narrow buildings were built at that time.

Type 5 Adjective Clauses

In some situations, the noun that you are describing is the owner of something, and this is the relationship that you want to keep in the adjective clause, This adjective clause is a "possessive"             clause.

Look at this example: I know that man. That man's children play hockey. In this situation, the noun that you will describe is "that man". In the adjective clause, the noun nthat man" is only a possessive adjective describing "children". You can make an adjective clause in this case also, using the connector whose". I know that man {whose children play hockey}.

Note; The connector "whose" is used for both people and things,

            e.g.       That is the building- Its windows have gold.

 That is the building gwhosewindows havegoldl.

Exercise 14.7

Combine these sets of sentences — use the second sentence as an adjective clause. Roman buildings are older than Gothic buildings. Roman arches are round.

2.      That is the man. His designs were used in the C.N. Tower.

3.      That is the woman. Her house is the biggest in the area.

That is the office tower. Its penthouse is the highest in Toronto.

5.	That is the building. Its penthouse is the most expensive In Canada.
6,	That is the man, His designs won the contest,

7, That is the woman, Her book is used as the textbook,

fib

Type 6 Adjective Clauses

All adjective clauses can be classified as one of two types — those that give extra information, and those that give key information.

Look at this sentence:

           Windows {Ihar are round} are          style,

The adjective clause {that are round} is very important — if tells us which windows. Not all windows are Roman style — which ones are Roman style? Round windows. We need the adjective clause to tell us which windows arc Roman style. This type of adjective clause is called "defining".

Look at this sentence:

Paris, {which has manyfantastic buildings}, is not as cold as Toronto.

The adjective clause {which has many fantastic buildings} gives us information about Paris, however it does not tell us which Paris. We know which Paris, because there is only one. If we remove the adjective clause from the sentence, we will still know exactly which city we are discussing. This type of adjective clause is called "nondefining" and needs commas at the beginning and at the end.

The commas around adjective clauses can play a key role in the meaning of the sentence. Look at this example:

             The buildings twhich         made of wood) burnt down.

This sentence means that some buildings were made of wood, and only some buildings burned down. Which ones? The ones which were made of wood. This is a defining adjective clause,

The buildings, {which were made o/uvoodt, 5umt

Because there are commas around the adjective clause, we can assume that it is extra in formation. That means that the adjective clause doesn't tell us which buildings. This means that all the buildings were made of wood and all of the buildings burned down,

Things to remember about adjective clause punctuation: ifthe adjective clause doesn't explain WHICH one, put commas ifyou are giving information about a proper noun (name), always use commas

Exercise 14.8

Read the following passage. Punctuate the adjective clauses as necessary. Remember, if the adjective clause does not answer the question "which one", you need commas.

Line I Line 5 Line 10 Line 15 Line 20

St. Peter's Basilica which is in the Vatican is an incredible architectural masterpiece. Many Other buildings which are located in Rome can also be considercd breathtaking, but St. Peter's Basilica takes thc cake. Also, not many other buildings can boast design contributions by two of the most famous Italian artists in the history of Italian art — Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci. The Basilica is said to be built on the grave of Saint Peter who was the first Pope. The current Basilica was built on the spot of an older Basilica which was built by the Roman Emperor Constantine. Constantine who lived from 274 to 337 introduced Christiamty as the state religion of the Roman Empire. The Basilica has one central hall which is called a nave which is divided into three parts to facilitate the movement of pilgrims who travel frorn all over the world to pray there. This nave which is 200 meters long can hold 401000 people. The Basilica took over 120 years which is a very long time to build. The original architect only designed the layout which is in the form Of a cross. The dome which was designed by Michelangelo is the largest dome in the world. It is 120 metres high. The dome is one piece of ceramic which is held up by tour huge square pillars which are 20 metres high.

Exercise 14.9 Rewrite this passage, combining sentences into adjective clauses. Remember to pay attention to prepositions. Remember — usually, there are many ways to express the same ideay

The Cathedral at Chartres

The Roman Empire greatly influenced architecture. It fell in the 4"' century. Power moved to France and Germany. Goths lived there.

People consider themselves lucky. They live in the small French town Of Chartres They built a shrine to honour the Virgin Mary, She protects them.

The Cathedral has 2 spires. The spires are of uneven heights. This is due to a fact.

The fact is that they were built at different timesv

The main entrance has 3 door; + There are arches above the doors + The arches are pointed. Pointed arches are called "lancet arches". They were in vented in Germany

The Cathedral has a grandiose roof. The roof is very heavy. To hold the weight of the roof, architects designed buttresses. They designed new walls. The walls were very thin and had many windowss

In the nave of the churCh there is a labyrinth, Labyrinths are common in Gothic churches. It is a path. Pilgrims walk ålong this path before worship.

Above the door, there are 1 3 pictures. These pictures depict Christ the King and 12 Apostles.

In the 1960s, structural engineers conducted a series Of tests on the Cathedral. The tests checked the stability of the design. According to the tests, the Cathedral should have collapsed centuries ago — luckily for us, it didnⁱt@ Maybe the Virgin Mary IS protecting it'

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Grammar Point 15 Adjective Clause Reductions

In many situations, when the sentence is very simple, it is possible to remove some sections of adjective clauses — the result is called an adjective phrase, or an adjective clause reduction.

As there are many types or adjective clauses, there are also many types of reductions.

In general do not make a reduction if the reduction will make the sentence difficult to understand

Type 1 Adjective Clause Reductions

When the noun that you are describing is NOT the subject of the adjective clause, you can remove the connector "that" or "which" or "whom" e DO NOT REMOVE other connectors, ie. where, whose, or when.

e.g. The herbs {that many people have in their garden} can be used medicinally

 The herbs    people have in their garden} can he used medicinally

Many people don't know the herbs :that they cook with) started as medicines.

                         Many         don't know the herbs {they cook witht started as

Galen is the Greek scientist {whom many consider to be the father of medicine}.

Galen is the Greek scientist {many consider .to be thefàrher ofmedicine:.

is the ciiy {where most medicinal herbs are grown}. cannot be reduced

Theifr/irst whiter in Canada was the time {when Cartier            his men alinost died} cannot be reduced

Exercise 15.1

In the following sentences, cross out any unnecessary adjective clause connectors.

l. She is very proud of the plants that she grew from seed.

2.      That is the store where he bought the exotic cactus.

3.      People that have small windows should not plant large plants.

4.      The course that he is taking will prepare him for his own business.

5.      The medicine that they sell in the store are all natural.

Exercise 15.2

In the following passage, cross out any unnecessary adjective clause connectors.

Line I Line 5 Line 10 Line 1 5 Line 20

In the summer Of 1995, a group Of Swiss skters came across a frozen body in the Italian Alps. The police that they called took the body to the nearest hospital for tests. The body that the climbers found was over 5000 years old, but was very well preserved because of the cold. The body was called "the Ice Man" by the scientists who studied it. His internal organs were just as well preserved as his exterior. The scientists who studied him also learned that the necklace that "Ice Man" had was actually a fungus/mushf00tm The researchers did not know, however, Why the "Ice Man" chose that particular foul-tasting mushroom to put on his necklace. With time, the researchers found that "Ice Man" had an intestinal parasite which he knew about. The mushroom that the "Ice Man" was carrying on his neCklace had some anti-viral properties- it was medicine for the virus that "Ice Man" was suffering from, "Ice Man" is the oldest documented case of herbal medicine, Records that historians found in China are over 4500 years old. Comparable lists were found in Egypt, and India. There is considerable evidence that the Native Canadians who carne from Asia brought with them the herbal traditions that thc "doctors" in their home countries practiced.

Type 2 Adjective Clause Reductions

When the connector is also the subject of the adjective clause, it is sometimes possible to create a more complex reduction. There are two possible ways to make a reduction.

1

First, check to see if the verb in the adjective clause includes the auxiliary vett "to If it does, remove the connector and the auxiliary verb. e.g. The doctor is examining the patient lying the ta ble}. The doctor is examining the patient {lying on the table}. The plant growing in the comer} con be usedfor medicine, The plant {growing in the corner} can be usedfor medicine. This pattern can bc used if the adjective clause is in the passive voice, also. If it is, remember that there will be the auxiliary verb "to be*' + the past participle. This is reduced the same way: e.g.      The medicine prescribed} can be purchased at the pharmacy downstai's. The medicine {prescribed} cat/ be purchased at the phannacy downstaiws. The textbook written in the century} is still being used today.                         The textbook {written in the       century) is still being used today.

11

If the verb in the adjective clause doesn't contain the auxiliary verb "to be", it may still be possible to make a reduction. The point to consider is: will changing the tense of the verb into the present continuous change the meamng of the sentence? If the change to the continuous will not change the meaning Of the sentence, you can make a reduction in the following way: 1.      Remove the subject 2.      Change the entire verb Structure into a gerund Look at this example: Peep/e whoforget to eat breakfast are usually hungry Oefòre their lunch break. If you change the verb "forget" to "forgetting", it will not really change the meaning of the sentence, because "I am forgetting" is an unusual form. Therefore, it is OK to change this adjective clause to: Peoplefotgerting to eat breakfast are usually hungry before their lunch break However, if changing the verb in the adjective clause into the continuous will change the meaning, you cannot make the reduction: Look at this example: The man who sits there every day is a doctor. If you change the verb "sits" to 'lis sitting", the meaning of the adjective clause will change. Therefóre, it is not OK to Change this adjective clause to: The man sitting there every day is a doctor. You can make this type of reduction with any "non-continuous verb". These are verbs such as forget, hate, and love which are usually not used with the continuous tenses.

Here is a list Of common "non-continuous" verbs: be (not as an auxiliary verb); believe; belong; exist; forget; hate; have (not as an auxiliary verb); hear; know; like; dislike; look like; love; mean; mind; need; owe; own; prefer; realize; remember; see; seem; suppose; think (believe); understand; want.

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Exercise 15.3

Practice reducing the following adjective clauses into adjective phrases.

People who want to buy herbal medicine have a much wider choice today than even 10 years ago.

2.	The human backbone is a highly complex and delicate structure which is made up 33 small bones called vertebrae.
3,	Brain tumors are a mass of cells - either abnormal or normal - that grow unnecessarily in the brain
4.	The cause of type I diabetes is unknown, although there is evidence that shows it mght be inherited.

of

Emphysema is caused by gradual damage to the structure of the lungs, which makes it harder to exhale.

Which drug is prescribed will depend on the individual patient, and their particular form of the disease which affects them.

7.      St Louis encephalitis, which was named after the town where it was first classified in 1933, is the most common viral encephalitis in the US,

8.      So far; avian influenza has mostly infected people Who have been around infected birds and their waste.

Tourette's syndrome tics, which are classified into two broad categories, can be verbal or physical.

10.In 2004, the number of cases Of mumps which were recorded in England and Wales jumped dramatically.

11.Starting in 2005, companies that sell vitamins in Canada will be regulated by the federal government.

12.Studies which were published in January of 2006 show that many cough medicines don't really work

13.The number of people who have been taking herbal medicine has been increasing steadily for the last few years„

14.The farms Which grow herbs which will be used in medicine can get a speciål tax break.

15.Companies that claim to sell 100% organic products are not regulated at all

16.The owners of stores that carry herbal medicines have often tried the products on themselves.

17.Private individuals who want to get more information about herbal mcdicinc can find a lot of information on-line.

18.People who want to use herbs that they grew for medicine should enquire with a licensed herbalist first.

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Grammar Point 16 - Equatives

In many situations, to explain about something completely unfamiliar. it is useful to compare it to something that is familiar to the listener. It is useful to choose one characteristic, and to use that feature to compare two objects.

Look at this example.

The whale shark is big. The Blue whale is the same size.

You can use size as the common characteristic between the two. To show the relationship, you need two prepositions "as"

The structure is very simple first item + verb + as + characteristic 4 as + second item

Look at these examples:

              The shark is               as dangerous as a pit bull

            Orcas              are        as fast                  as Great White Sharks

Things to remember when making equatives: You must always compare similar thing to each other Sharks are as dangerous as snakes NOT: Sharks are as dangerous as on a mountain noun preposition phrase To swim is as fun as canoeing i"fìnifive          gerund The verb must always agree With the subject — the first item you are comparing: The Oceažt as saline as the Indian Ocean Lobsters guugt as common as shrimp  Traditionally if you are using pronouns, the second item (after the second "as") must be in the subject form, not Object form. In modern conversational English, however, both forms are acceptable Sharks are not as smart as "e (traditionally correct) Sharks are not as smart as him Onodera conveoarional English) You can use the verb as the comparison between the two items- In this case, however, you also require an adverb: IIé swims as quickly as f

Exercise 16.1

Write sentences combining these nouns using the "as — as" structure, as in the example.

e.g. Sharks — dangerous — cobras sharks are as dangerous as cobras

e.g. I swim fast — sharks +1 can't swim as fast as sharks

Part 1.

Whale Sharks — large - Orca whales

2.	A porpoise — intelligent — a bullmastiff
3b	The Atlantic Ocean — big — the Pacific Ocean
4.	Nothing — deep — Lake Baikal
	Nothing — long — the Great Barrier Reef
6.	Nobody — strong — a crocodile

7. Lake Erie — clean — Lake Ontario

9.      An eel — dangerous — a shark

10. Nothing — big — the Mediterranean sea

I I. An electric eel — long — a freshwater eel

12. A stingray — dangerous — the blue ring octopus

16.2

In this exercise, make the same structure, but don't use the verb "to be' Pay attention to the point of comparison between the two items.

e.g. Octopus, swim, shark An octopus cannot swim asfast as a shark

1. A sperm whale, eat, a blue whale

2.	A dogbite, hurt, a jellyfish bite
3.	A seal, scream, a sea lion
4.	A sealt jump, a dolphin
5,	Nothing, eat, a killer whale
	Nothing, swim, a great white shark

Part 11.

Rewrite these simple sentences which contain comparative structures into sentences that have the "as — form (you will have to use the negativeth Remember — analyze what two things you are comparing, and then isolate the point of comparison.

e.g. The squid that has green flashing lights is smaller than the giant squid.

The seateace compares the squid that has greenWashing lights and thegiatgt squid, The poini ofcomparison is size — one is smaller fhan the Other

             The squid         has lights is      as big as              squid

Exercise 16.3

The shark with the big white dots is bigger than the Great White shark.

2.      The sea snakes that live at the bottom are more poisonous than the Cobra-

3.      The sea snakes that live near the top of the sea are less poisonous than the snakes that live near the bottom.

The porpoise that lives in captivity is mote intelligent than the porpoise that lives in the wild*

5. The Orca whale that lives near British Columbia swims faster than the Great White Shark that live in Australia.

6.	Octopi are more flexible than dolphins
7-	Tarantulas are more dangerous than water spiders-
	Electric eels are less dangerous than anacondas.

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16.4

In the following passage, change the comparative forms to equative forms.

Line 1 Line 5 Line 10 Line 15

In the oceans, there are more species Of animals than on land and in the air. However, the variety of plant and animal life in the oceans is the same as on land. In general, warmer oceans have more varieties of fish than colder oceans. The fish that live in warmer oceans are more colourtill than the fish which live in the cold. There is also a variation in size — fish that live in colder water tend to be bigger than fish that live in warmer water. The vegetation is quite the opposite, however. The vegetation in the warmer water tends to grow much larger than the vegetation in the colder water Of the notth. One thing that is more difficult to measure is the danger of the sea, Plants and animals that look safer may actually be more dangerous than animals that look safet For example, the  octopus of Australia looks much less dangerous than the giant octopus of Canada. However, the

Canadian animal is much less dangerous. On the other hand, the enormous Blue whale looks more imposing than the apparently cute Orca whale. In reality though, the Orca "killer" whale is the most dangerous predator in the waters of the North.

80

Grammar Point 17 - The Superlative

When you want to describe the number one thing in the world, you need to use the "superlative" form. This is made using the same formula as the comparative form, but the endin are different.

I Syllable	2 Syllables		3 or more s llables
	ends in	doesn't end in
add "the -est" to the base form	add "the -est" to the base form	add "the most" in front of the base form	add "the most" in front of the base form
for exam le	for exam le	for exam le:	for exam le:
small + the smallest	noisy + the noisiest	crowded the most crowded	expensive the most ex ensive
new the newest	dirty the dirtiest	modern the most modern	majestic the most ma•estic
cheap the chea est	smelly the smelliest	complex the most com lex	impressive the most im ressive
close + the closest	busy the busiest		beau tiful+ the most beautiful

Good + The best

Bad       The worst

 The most fun

Old    The Oldest(can be used for anything)

The Eldest (used for brothers or sisters only)

Far        The Farthest (used mostly for distance)

The Furthest (means deeper - used for research, investigatioti)

Write the superlative forms for these noun/adjective pairs

        e.g. Krakatoa — high — mountain          Krakatoa is the highest mountain

Pacific— big - ocean

2. Blue whale — big - animal

3.	Giant squid — long — invertebrate
4.	Killer whale — fast — water animal
5,	Stout Infantfish — small — fish
	Whale shark — big — fish
7.	Cyclothone — common — fish

8 Great white shark — dangerous — fish

9, Great Barrier Reef — long — marine ecosystem

10. Baikal — deep —lake

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— Superlatives vs Equatives

Practice re-writing these superlative forms as an equative structure, using "nothing" as the first noun. Keep in mind that there can be many verbs — not just "to be".

e.g. The Porsche is thefastest car Nothing is asfast as the Ponche.

1 The C.N. Tower is the tallest building in the world

2.	Lake Bailkal is the deepest lake.
3.	Australia is the smallest continent.
4.	Durian is the smelliest fruit.
5,	The Anaconda is the longest snake,
6.	Victoria Falls is the highest waterfall.
7.	Niagara Falls is the most beautiful waterfall.
8	The hummingbird has the smallest eggs.

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Change the adjectives in the following passage into the superlative form.

Dangers of the deep

Line I	Creatures of all shapes and sizes inhabit the oceans of the world. Although people catch many spectes, there are those which are best left alone. (dangerous) creature in the water is
Line 5	the Great White Shark This is (large) of the shark family, and can grow to over 50 feet (16metres), (long) distance a Great White has ever traveled is more than 20,000 km in 9 months. Luckily, Great Whites don't like cold, so there's no chance of seeing one in Lake Ontario.
Line 10	(Poisonous)fish is the stonefish. (large)  stonefish discovered were 12 inches (30 centimetres). However, the dorsal spines of the stonefish can penetrate (hard)  shoes. The second (poisonous) creature is actually a Stingray. This is the
Line 15	smaller cousin of the huge Manta Ray — the original "Sea Monsterï    We     cannot forget the       octopi  (poisonous)  octopus is the (Australian) blue ring octopus. It has a neurorpoison Which is fatal within 30 minutes. Although jellyfish look imposing, there is only one which has ever
Line 20	proven regularly fatal — the Boxfish.

The     irony    is         obvious :         some    of         (beautiful)  creatures in the world co-exist with the

(dangerous)in the coral reefS.

Grammar Point 18 - Showing Cause and

Effect with Adjectives

It is possible to show how one change affects another situation. This is done with the following structures:

I         the + comparative *the + noun, the + comparative + the + noun

e.g. The deeper the water, the thinner thefish. The darker the water, the bigger the eyes.

This form can also be used with

2.            the •e comparative [subject+verblt the + comparative [subject+verbl.

           e.g.       The deeper yot' dive, the stronger thepressure is.

The smaller the shark is, the smaller the danger is. The more I learn, the less near.

And this form can be used with adjective only:

e.g.                      The bigger, the better.

The cheaper, the happier. The more, rhe merrier.

Exercise 18.1

Complete these "the + comparative" pairs with possible results. Remember, there is no one correct answer.

The more people use public transit such as busses and subways,

2. The more people know about sharks,

3, The more people study about the environment,

The more pressure people put on big corporations,

5. The more people recycle,

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18.2

Complete the second part Of the "the + comparative" structure with your own answer.

Line 1	There has been an alarming trend over the last few decades to ignore environmental side-effects, and the warnings of environmental scientists when it comes to the world's oceans. The more developed the world becomes,
Line 5	Although everyone knows pollution is bad, only Greenpeace seems to be actually doing anything about it. However, many people consider Greenpeace struply a group of crazy people. Because of their reputation, the more Greenpeace speaks,

Line 10 Line 15

The amount of garbage that is being dumped into the world's oceans is This is especially obvious in Australia's amazing Coral Reef. Because this is such a highly-evolved ecosystem, it shows the first negative side-effects of pollution. Even though it is very far removed from us in Canada, we must remember that the whole planet is connected, and the more damage we do in Australia,

Also, the more we help Australia when they have a problem,

Grammar Point 19 Verb Tenses

There are 3 tenses in English — Simple, Continuous and Perfect, and each one has a special meaning.

In generall the Slrpple tenses are used to describe actions, the Contlnuous tenses are used to describe interrupted actions, and the Perfect tenses are used to put events into order.

When talking about tenses, it is very important to remember the time marker. There are many time markers — usually preposition phrases.

Each tense can be used in each time — past, present and future. Each tense has its own unique meaning, and each one needs to be considered in relation to other tenses.

Describing Now

1. Present Continuous (also called Progressive)

This tense is made with the auxiliary verb "to be" and the present participle ('i ing" form), It is used to describe actions which are happening The action is interrupted by this sentence).

It can also be used to describe plans which absolutely cannot be changed

 Remember: When you use the any continuous tense, the verb has 2 parts — the auxiliary and the participle. If you omit cither one, the verb is incomplete. is wrong

+ Remember: There are some verbs that are usually not used in the continuous tenses.

2. Simple Present

This tense is used to describe what usually happens or hobbies.

The structure is very easy:

Subject + Simple Form of the Verb (S.F. V.)

7:00.

            Canadians        about history.

If there is no time marker, the present simple is preferred to the present continuous.

3, Present Perfect

This tense is used to describe events that are finished, if the time is not finished. The time marker is very important with this tense.

a vacation this year.

If the does not contain a time marker, use the present perfect, not the Simple past, Especially with questions of the form "have you — the time marker is understood to mean "in your life" Have you been to Africa?

Have you touched a snake?

+ Remember: When you use the any perfect tense, the verb has 2 parts — the auxiliary and the participle. If you omit either one, the verb is incomplete.

Exercise 19.1

In the following sentences t underline the subject once and the verb twice. Correct any mistakes you findv

Both the Canadian and American government has made cfTOrts to assimilate native culture into European society

2, There are over 150 separate language in Canada and the United States,

3.     Many native tribes' oral traditions teach that their ancestors have always been in the Americas,

4.     Most indigenous people in the US refer to themselves as "American Indian " while most indigenous people in Canada call themselves "First Nations. "

5.     According to the census reports, there are about million Native Americans in the United States and I million in Canada.

6.     There are many more Indigenous people in Centrål and South America than there are in Canada and the United States.

First Nations peoples across Canada holds annual PouAVows where they display their rich cultural heritage and pride in their history.

8 Scientist estimate that people have lived in North America for at least 20,000 years,

Describing the past

1. Simple Past

When you are describing an action that happened at a specific time in the past, use the Simple past tense. Remember, you need to include a time marker.

In 1876, C,operal Custer attacked the Sioux.

            Before Europeans           to North America, there were horses living here.

2. Past Continuous

When you are describing an event that did not finish, or that was interrupted, use the past continuous tense. The action that interrupts the past continuous is in the simple past.

The past continuous tense uses the auxiliary verb "to be" in the past form + present participle.

baskets when / came.

Points to remember about the past continuous tense The interrupting action does not have to be in the same sentence, but it must be understood — it must be very obvious why the action in the past continuous was not finished.             egr      Cartier met representatives orche Algonquin tribe when he arrived in Canada, People were waiting/br him on the banks ofthe St. Lawrence River. Many sentences can be used together in the past continuous to describe one big event, e.g Champlain worried about surviveng hisfirst wmter in New Francz The weather was becoming very cold, his men were becomiug sick and theiÊ s«pplies were running out.

3, Past Perfect

The past perfect is used to describe an action that happened in the past, before another action in the past. It is used to put past events in orden

As with the past continuous, the two ideas do not have to be in the same sentence, but it must be very clear from the context that there are two ideas, and the one in the past perfect happened first.

e.g.       Ltst summer, I was on an a       the ninth rime. I had flown to Europe, Africa, Australia, and California.

f was not inwressed when I met Brad Pitt     week. I had met many movie stars before that.

The past perfect uses the auxiliary verb "to have" in the past form + past participle

e.g.      When the Inuit anived in North Antevica, theyfound people living there — people who had migrated thousands ofyears earlier.

By the time rhe people returned, theJirc had consumed their entire village.

            By the time the            gave Camer the Arbonritae, many ofhis men had died

Exercise 19.2

In the following stories, fill in the blank with the appropriate verb form

Where did the Native Americans come from?

Line I	Before the arrival of Europeans to "the new world", there (be) approximately 3 million inhabitants here. No written reports (exist)  about how they arrived, but most anthropologists now (believe) that they followed the
Line 5	animals. Roughly 30 thousand years ago, during the last ice age, a '*bridge" (exist) between Alaska and Siberia. Migrating herds of mastodon and other large game (make) their way across this bridge in search of food- Asian hunters
Line 10	(follow)them to the "New Continent" „ Anthropologists speculate that upon at-rival here, the new immigrants did not stopl but rather (continue) their migration along the coast south. It is believed that most ofthose who came to North America actually (continue)  south
Line 15	through Mexico and into South America. All of the Americas are believed to have been inhabited 5000 years ago. Most Of these new arrivals (continue) migrant lifestyle, following the animals that they originally followed to their new home. Others, however, settled — especially in the fertile plains of
Line 20	Mexico, Canada and eventually Argentina. This first "wave" of immigrants was followed by others. Although there is no proof, scientists (theorize) that the Inuit were actually the most recent group Of immigrants, arriving only approximately 2,500 years ago. Scientists now (believe)
Line 25	that this group remained in the Arctic because other

territory was already inhabited.

Describing the future

1. Simple Future

This is the easiest — and most common way — to describe events in the future. There are two common structures:

1.     Subject + will+ S.F.V. Iheywillreturn.

She

2.     Subject "be going to" + S.F. V.

it.

Both forms are equally " strong" when describing plans for the future.

Next week I wi// visit Montreal

Next week, I going to visit Montreal.

                Next week,                            team

            Next                             team is going to win.

However, when there is a situation that requires a reaction, the structure ' 'will" is the only one used.

a)There's someonearthedoor. b)Ï71answerit

b) I'm going to answer it is wrong

2. Future continuous

This tense is used to express what Will be happening at an exact moment in time in the future. This tense is used to describe one activity that will happen at the same time as a second.

The structure of this tense is:

subject "will be" + present participle

e.g. Atthat time, he yill-þŠAx;riying.

We dinner at 7:00} so please don't be late.

Remember: Every person takes the same form — will bey

3, Future Perfect

This tense is used to describe an action that will be finished before a time in the future. The structure is:

subj. + "will have" + past participle.

 By the end oft/±e nexr month, we havefìnished this textbook end of200ó, ETS have the ißT.

*Remember: Time markers are very important with this tense, as with every Other Perfect tense,

Review of Tenses

Náme	Form	Use	Time Markers
Sim le Present	sub'ect + S.F.V.	habits traditions	usuall ev da
Present Continuous	Subj. + "to be" + present participle	Action happening now, plan that cannot be cha ed	Now
Present Perfect	Subj. + "to have" + past artici le	Finished Action, unfinished time	for, since
Sim le Past	Sub + st form	Events in the st
Past Continuous	subj. + "to be (past)" + sent •ci le	Interrupted event in the past	while, durmgt when
Past Perfect	Subj. + "to have (past)" + ast artici le	Event before something in the past	before
Sim le Future	Sty. + "will" + S.F.V	Events in the future
Future Continuous	Subj. + "will be" + sent	Events in the future that will he interrupted	when, while, during
Future Perfect	subj. + "will have" + past participle	Events that will happen before other future events	before, by

There is another set of tenses — the perfect continuous tense. However, it is almost never used in teal conversation, because there is no real difference between it and the perfect tense.

Exercise 19.3 — In the following Story, fill in the blanks with the appropriate verb

Line I	Many, many years ago when the world was new, there (be)  a beautiful river. Fish in great numbers (live) in this river, and its water was so pure and sweet that all the animals came there to drink.
Line 5	One day, a moose who (hear)  about this beautiful river from a muskrat (come) there to drink. Unfortunately, he was so big, and he (drink) much, that soon the water (begin)  to sink lower and lower. All the animals (be)  worried. The
Line 10	beavers (worry)  because their homes would be destroyed. The muskrats (be)  worried because they couldn't live without the river. All the animals (try)  to think of a way to drive the moose from the river; but he (be)  so big
Line 15	that they were too afraid to try. At last, thc fly (say)he would try to drive the moose away. All the animals (laugh)  How could a tiny fly frighten a giant moose? The fly (say)  nothing, but that day, When the
Line 20	moose (drink)                                                     he landed on his leg and (bite)

How the Fly Saved the River (Ojibway — Great Lakes area)

The moose (stamp)  his foot hard, but each time he stamped, the ground sank and the water rushed in to fill it up. Then the fly (jump)  about all over the moose, Line 25            biting and biting until the moose was in a frenzy Moose (dash) madly about the banks of the river, but he couldn't get rid ofthat pesky fly, At last the moose (flee) from the river, and (not come)

Grammar Point 20 Regular Verbs and Link Verbs

All verbs in English can be categorized as either regular (action) verbs or link verbs (also called linking verbs, or copulas).

Regular verbs describe an action by the subject.

e.g. The Apache the tomahawk in battle Thi' Haida enormous Totem Poles. The Blackfoot in Teepees.

These vetbs say What the subject does*.

Link verbs give information about the subject, and do not describe an action*. e•g. She is a teacher.

In this sentence, the verb "is" does not describe an action from the subject to the object — it connects the word before it, she, and the word after it, teacher. It creates a "link" between the subject and complement.

            e.g.        The Great Plains huge.

The Anasazi uuepeaceful.

The most common linking verb is the verb "to be".

Verbs like took, smell, feel, and taste can be used as both regular verbs and linking verbs. This can cause confusion, and therefote the context Of the sentence becomes very important,

                e.g.        

in this case, the verb "looked" describes an action by the bear. Here, it is used as a regular verb.

            e.g.     The Mohawk hairstyle IQQ&ed scary.

in this case, the verb "looked" describes the haircut - it does not tell you what the hair did. TherefOre, it is a link verb.

This difference is important, because regular vcq'bs arc fOIlowed by adverbs. Link verbs are fOllowed by adjectives.

* Do not confuse regular/link verbs with transitive/intransitive verbs. All link verbs are intransitive, but not all intransitive verbs are link verbs

 

Exercise 20.2

In the followtng story, choose the correct modifier - adjective or adverb,

How Mosquitos Came To Be [Tlinget Tribe of The Pacific coastl

Line I Line 5 Line 10 Line 15 Line 20 Line 25

Long time ago there was a giant who loved to eat humans. He was especially fond of human hearts. "Unless we can get rid of the giant," people said (fearful/fearfully), "none of us will be left," and they called a council to discuss ways and means. One man said, "T think know how to kill the monster," and he went to the place where the giant had been seen (recent/recently) There he lay down (quick/quickly) and pretended to be dead, Soon the giant came along Seeing the man lying there, he said (happy/happily): "These humans are making it easy for me. Now I don't even have to catch and kill them; they die right on my trail, probably from fear of me!" The giant touched the body. 'Ah, good," he said, "this one is still (warm/warmly) and (fresh/freshly). What a tasty meal hell make. The giant flung the man over his shoulder, and the man let his head hang down as if he were dead. Carrying the man home, the giant dropped him in the middle of the floor right near the fireplace. Then he saw that there was no firewood, and went to get some. As soon as the monster had left, the man got up and grabbed the giant's huge Skinning knife. Just then the giant's son came in. He was still small as giants got and the man held the big knife to his throat. "Quick, tell me, where your father'S heart is!" The giant's son became (scarcd/scaredly). He said (quict/quietly): "My father's heart is in his left heel.' Just then the giant's left foot appeared (sudden/suddenly) in the entrance, and the man (swift/swiftly) plunged the knife into the heel- The

monster screamed (loud/loudly) and fell down dead,

Yet, the giant still spoke (angry/angrily). "Though I'm deadl though you killed me, I'm going to keep on eating you and all the humans in the world forever!"

Line 30 Line 35 Line 40

"That's what you think!" said the man. "I'm about to make sure that you never eat anyone again." He cut the giantis body (rapid/ rapidly) into pieces and burned each one in the fire, Then he took the ashes and threw them (forceful/forcefully) into the air for the winds to scatter, Instantly each of the particles turned into a mosquito, The cloud of ashes became a cloud of mosquitoes, and ftom their midst the man heard the giant's voice laughing, saying: "Yes, I'll eat you people (constant/constantly) until the end of time. " As the monster spoke, the man felt a sting, and a mosquito started sucking his blood, and then many mosquitoes stung him (painful/painfully), and the man began (sudden/guddenly) to scratch himself.

99

Grammar Point 21     Verbals: Gerunds &

Infinitives

It is possible to use a verb as a subject or object. However, it must be clear that the verb that you are using as the subject or verb is not THE verb. For that, you must change the subject/object verb to the gerund form or the infinitive form, The gerund and infinitive form are called a Verbal,

Paying is not fun. Owning is fun.

I like traveling.

They don't enjoy canoeing.

Things to remember about verbals: They must act like nouns -they stand either before or after the verb They are verbs — therefore they are described by adverbs Hunting silently is imporant Rowing quickly is difficult They are verbs — therefore they can take objects Building teepees was an important skill Chasing bison is a dangerous sport They can be either the subject or the Object Canoeing is fun I like canoeing

When you use a verbal as the subject Of a sentence, use the gerund. The infinitive is grammatically conect, but it sounds unusuål.

The difficult point of vefbdls is to know which one to use as the object. This is something you must learn — some verbs are followed by the infinitive, some are followed by the gerund_ There is no pattern or logic — you must simply learn which is which

Exercise 21.1

Complete the sentences using the verbs in the box.

to create to give up

to pay to sign to pay attention to put down to realize to reach to levy to collect

By the early 1770s, many people in the US had refusedsome of the taxes that England demanded.

2.      Very early in its existence, the Continental Congress began plans an independent nation.

3.      Even though it was a very unpopular thing to do, the British government continued —new taxes on Its colonies in the "New World".

4.      Immediately after the declaration of independence, England attempted any rebe1110t1.

5.      The first thing that George Washington startedwas weapons.

6 Originally, Thomas Jefferson hoped a peaeefiil resolution to the

U.S. political disagreements with England.

Even through the hardships at Valley Forge, the troops with George Washington refused

England neglectedto the complaints Of the colonist

9. The British government fáiledthe importance of the Boston Tea

party

England agreeda truce, and the US won its first war,

• Remember: When a verb follows a preposition, including phrasal a phrasal verb, it MUST be in the gerund form.

Exercise 21.2

Complete these sentences using the verbs in the box.

I . The American colonists detested  to England without getting representation in government.

Paul Revere risked  by the British for giving notice of the

3.     There was no time for the        Continental Army to practice well.

4.     At first, Washington avoided directly  the British army in open battle.

5.     At valley Forge, the       entire Continental   Army risked

- only a mistake In communication between British units saved them

6.     In hindsight, it is actually quite surprising that the Continental Army did not quit after so many early defeats.

After the passage of "the Intolerable Acts", the Continental Congress could not put offany more.

Benjamin Franklin suggested  Fiance and asking for help with the war.

9 Many "patriots" gave upto join the war,

10. After the defeat at Yorktown, British Parliament couldn^lt help a treaty with the Continental Congress.

Exercise 21.3

In the following exercise, choose the appropriate form Of the verb — gerund or infinitive.

The Causes of the US Revolution

By the end of the 17^b century, cultural differences between England and its colonies in the "New WOrld" had started (to  There were many reasons for thisv the most obvious being physical separation. The type of people who immigrate to a new land obviously enjoy (to do/doing) different things than those people who prefer (to stay/staying) in one place, For the most parts, these differences did not cause any major problems, likely because England did not want to risk (to anger/angering) its colonists and sending them to help the French, who also had colonies in North America.

Conditions changed abruptly in 1763. The Treaty of Paris saw the end of French influence In North America, and England decided (to tighten/tightening) its control. England's justification was that it needed money to pay for the defense of the colonies. The British parliament passed a series oflaws which intended (to introduce/introducing) the colonies to taxes. In reality, England did not worry about any serious military threat — after all, it had just defeated France.

In 17651 however, a law called the "Stamp Act" was passed — this was the final straw. It must be noted that US merchants did not necessarily mind (to pay/paying) taxes. They really detested (to pay/paying) taxes without getting representation in Parliamentv Many prominent US merchants, lawyers and newspaper publishers started (to protcst/protesting) this law. In 1766 Britain decided (to repeal/rcpealing) this law, but the damage was done. Relations between the two continents began (to worsen/ worsening)t and they never really improved.

Grammar Point 22 - Causative Verbs

There are some verbs that describe a different situation. These verbs show that the subject caused the object to do something. They are called "Causative" verbs.

There are two types of causative verbs in English — those that are followed by the infinitive, and those that are followed by the Simple Form of the Verb (SwF .V.)

These verbs are followed by the infinitive These verbs are fOllowed by the S.F.V.

force	make
allow	let
get encourage convince	have

Notice that some of these verbs can be used as regular verbs, and again the context of the sentence must be examined.

• Remember: Causative veibs are followed by the object, and the object must do something.

e.g. The Stamp Actforced the colonists ro payfor every governmenl stamp, The Continental Congress let George Washington lead NIC army in his own

Exercise 22.1

In the following sentences, underline the subject once, the verb twice and put brackets around the Object. Then mark if the second verb is in the correct form.

l , The mistakes of the British generals allowed the Continental army win the war,

2. The strong speaking skills of George Washington made men want to follow him, even through the hardships of Valley Forge.

3, The Continental Congress got Jefferson to arrange a peace with France

4.      "The Intolerable Acts" made small groups of "patriots" gather and form the Continental Congress.

5.      A desire to be culturally different from England made Americans change the spellings of many words.

6.      To this day, the reasons that made Benedict Arnold defect are unknown.

7.      After the British surrender Of 1871 , the US government allowed English merchants stay in America.

Exercise 22.2

Writing biographies.

Below are paragraph biographies of people who were important during the US war of independence. Re-write these paragraphs, using the verbs given with each. There is no one correct way to re-write these paragraphs.

L George Washington

George Washington was born in Virginia in 1742. His father died when he was 9 years Old, and George had to move in with his Older brother. He joined the army when he was in his early 20s, and quiCkIy rose to a high position.

He joined the Continental Army in 1776 and was the first leader. After one victory in Boston he made a very big mistake in New York City. However, he made a decision to make a surprise attack at night across the Delaware River and defeated a larger BritishGerman army. Washington's personal charisma encouraged people to remain loyal to American Independence even through a very difficult winter in Valley Forge.

Eventually, Washington accepted the surrender Of British forces at Yorktown in 1781. He was elected the first president of the new republic in 1789. He was re-elected in 1792.

Use these verbs: forced, decide, convince, continue.

Thomas Jefferson

Thomas Jefferson was born in Virginia in 1743. He was born into a rich family, and was famous for his ability to write well. Unfortunately, he was not a very could public speaker, and didn't like to do it.

Jefferson was one of the original members of the Continental Congress, and when the Congress asked him to write the Declaration of Independence, he said yes.

Jefferson became leader of the Republican Party. He was a strong supporter of the French Revolution. He became US ambassador to France after Benjamin Franklin in 1785.

Jefferson became US president after John Adams in 1800. His most famous act as president was the Louisiana Purchase from France/Nápoleon in 1803.

Use these verbs: dislike, like, agree, plan

Benjamin Franklin

Benjamin Franklin was born in 1706, one of 12 children, Young Ben became a printer's apprentice. His genius caused him to get bored, and Franklin ran away to Philadelphia. Tn Philadelphia, Franklin started inventing — he invented a new type of stove, bifocal glasses, swimming flippers and conducted electrical experiments.

He went to England in 1757 as representative of the Pennsylvania State Government. Franklin considered himself a British loyalist, but became disillusioned with England after seeing the political corruption there. He returned to America and was elected to the Continental Congress,

Franklin was one of the original signers of the Declaration of Independence on July 4 ^th 1776. He used his contacts to ensure French support for American Independence, and was appointed first American Ambassador to France.

Use these verbs: expect, begin, plan

Paul Revere

Paul Revere was born in Massachusetts in 1734 (or 1735 - the exact date is not known)

He was a silversmith, and as such was very unhappy with the continuous taxation of American industry by Britain. He was one of the new class of American craftsmen who became known as "gentleman". He was an ardent patriot.

Paul Revere is most famous for one horse-ride he made in the middle of the night between April 18 ^th and 19 ^th 1775, from Boston to Lexington, to warn the US militia that British troops were marching against them. Although it cannot be verified, the popular image is of Paul Revere riding in the middle of the night shouting ^u The redcoats are coming! The redcoats are coming!"

Paul Revere was a member of the "Minute men" — a famous militia group in Boston that took part in the first battle the Revolutionary War.

Use these verbs: dislike, enjoy, hope

Sam Adams

Sam Adams was born into a prosperous beer brewing family in Boston. Unfortunately, he was not very good at business and quickly lost the business. However, he was very popular and was helped by his neighbours and friends. Like many businessmen, Adams was angry at British taxes.

Adams is most famous for organizing "The Boston Tea Party" of 1773. To protest a new British tax on tea, Adams, with roughly 15 other patriots dressed up as Mohawks. They boarded 3 British ships and dumped 9,000 pounds of tea into Boston Harbour This is considered one of the key events leading up to the revolution of 1776.

Adams was a member of the first Continental Congress in 1775v He signed the declaration ofindependence on July 4^th t 1776.

Use these verbs: dislike, hope, plan

Benedict Arnold

Benedict Arnold was born in 1741 and at a young age he showed that he wanted to fight for America. He ran away twice to fight in the Seven Years War. After that, he studied to be a pharmacist, but always kept the patriotic cause close to his heart.

When the Revolution broke out, he was a colonel and became a distinguished war hero. He led an American attack on Quebec, and was wounded twice. However, he was greatly angered by a decision of Congress to promote others ahead of him.

He went to Philadelphia to recuperate from his injuries and got married. He very quickly got into debt; and here decided to sell military information to the British, On September  1 779, Arnold met with a British general — the general was caught and Arnold changed sides.

Arnold continued to fight on the side of the British as a brilliant commander until the end of the war.

Use these verbs: wanted, started, disliked

Grammar Point 23 The Passive Voice

In some Situations, it is difficult to make a sentencer because the subject is not clear. It is also possible that the result of the sentence is more important than the subject. In these cases, it is possible to change the structure of the sentence so that the receiver of the action becomes the subject of the sentence.

Look at these examples:

Some people built Fort Sumter in the late 1700s, The people who made it are not as important historically as the fact that it exists. Therefore the sentence would more commonly be written as The receiver of the action is moved to the beginning of the sentence. However, the verb must be changed to show that the subject did not do the action. The verb is In the form: TO be -V Past Participle Fort Sumter was built in the late 1700s.

 

Points to remember about the passive voice Only "transitive" verbs can be made into the passive voice, Transitive verbs are those verbs that take direct objects. Verbs like "sleep" cannot be made into the passive voice. e.g.                                                The by Confederate troops. by a war:                        The war                                                /864. — is wrcwg                         The                                                the Nórth- - is wrong The main verb is always in the past participle form. The auxiliary verb "to be" must agree with the subject. The auxiliary verb shows the tense of the action. The main verb is always in the past participle.            e.g.       In situations where you know the doer of the action, you can add this to the sentence. The doer of the action is Introduced with the preposition "by". This is called the agent. e.g. General Lee) in April of / 8ó5. (by o Confederate sympathizer). All prepositions must remain connected to the same noun/verbs which they describe in the active voice. In the sentence '{They elected o new leader ofthe south 'l the prepositionphrase (of the South) describes the leader Therefore, when you change the sentence to the passive voice, ' leader was elected", the preposition phrase must stay immediately after "leader" "A leader offhe south was elected". Many verbs can be BOTH transitive and intransitive, depending on the context,              Hé ended tope (van')         The tape ended (intrans.) She hrgng theposteron the wail (trans.) The poster is hanging on the (intrans.) Here are some common verbs which can be both: grow, end, hang, break, move, run, hold, fly, turn.

Here is a list of tenses — transcribed from the active to the passive.

You do it	It is done
You gredeiug it	+ It               done
You hitvedone it	+ It has-been done

You

You

You

Yota will do it

If Willþe-done

You                                         If                being done

You Will                            it If Wii/                beepž done

* Note — you can add by you to any of these sentences.

There are two parrs of verbs which are very confusing:

            Transitive                   Intransitive

lay- laid-laid   lie — lay- Iain raise•aised-raised       rise- rose-risen

Exercise 23.1

Practice forming the passive voice by Changing the following sentences from the active to the passtvc.

Some Confederate troops raised The Merrimac and covered it with iron.

Some politicians signed the secession documents on December 20^th , 1860.

3, Some soldiers filed the             shots ofthe Civil War on April 12 ^th 1861.

4.      Some soldiers fought the first battle on July 21 ⁴ , 1861, near Washington D.C.

5.      Some politicians decided to move the capital of the Confederacy from Mobile, Alabama to Richmond, Virginia.

6, On September17^th 1862, soldiers wounded or killed 11,657 Union troops and 11,729 Confederate troops.

7. In 1862, the Union government passed a law that made all slaves of men who supported the Confederacy free.

Between July 1 ^st and                    soldiers fought the battle of Gettysburg.

9.      In November of 1864, people re-elected President Lincoln.

10. On April 9 ^th, 1865, generals surrendered the Conféderate army.

I I. People killed over 620,000 people dunng the US Civil War.

Exercise 23.2

Choose which Of the sentences should be changed into the passive. Remember — if the "doer" of the action is key, use the active voice. If the result is more importantl or the doer Of the action is unknown, use the passive voice.

General Thomas Jackson got the nickname "stonewall" for his ability to repel attacks.

2,	At the beginning ofthe war, people volunteered on both sides in large numbers
3.	England was the Confederacy's largest international supporter.
	Union ships blockaded the south in order to prevent trade between and Europe.	the Confederacy
5.	Many Confederate troops called themselves "Rebels" to between themselves and the soldiers of the U S. Revolution.	draw a relationship
6.	People called the Confederate flag the "Stars and Bars".
7.	People called the Union flag the "Stars and Stripes"

80 General Robert E. Lee signed the Confederate surrender on April 9^th, 1865.

9.     Jefferson Davis was the only president of the Confederacy.

10. President Abraham Lincoln abolished slavery on January I ^q , 1863.

l l. Many people on both Sides Of the Civil war did not support the "Emancipation Proclamation" which made slavery illegal.

12. For the most part, France did not interfere in the U.S. Civil War.

Exercise 23.3

Step I . Change the second sentence in each pair to the passive voice. Step 2. Combine the two sentences into an adjective clause combination

Step 3. Reduce the adjective clause

e.g. The Confederacy was not strong. people created it in 186/.

 The Confederacy was not economically strong It was created in /86/

2 The  which was created in 1861, was not economically strong.

3. The Confederacy, created i'/ 1861, wos not economically strong

1, The first Confederate flag was similar to the Uhion flag, People invented the Confederate nag in 1861. 1.

2.

3.

2. The CSVS. Virginia was the first iron-clad battleship. People originally called it the USS Merrimac.

2.

3.

The Confederate capital was at Mobilet Alabama. People moved it later.

1.

2.

3.

4.      Fort Sumter is a historical site. The Confederates captured it m 1861.

1.

2.

3.

5.      Robert E. Lee was the son of a Revolutionary war hero. People made him commander of Confederate forces. 1.

2.

3.

6 Slavery was the most emotional issue ofthe Civil War. People abolished it later.

1.

2.

3.

7, The Confederate units were better prepared at the start of the war. People gave each one a doctor, 1.

2.

3.

The totem pole at the Royal Ontario Museum is the largest in eastern Canada Somebody carved it in British Columbia,

1.

2.

3.

The first modern computer was the size of a room Somebody built it in 1949.

1.

2.

3.

10. The C.N, Tower is the tallest building in the world. People opened itin 1976.

1.

2.

3.

I l. The tenth planet in our solar system is actually bigger than the ninth. Somebody called it "Sedna".

1.

2.

3.

12. Rosemary is often used to add flavor to baked chickens People consider rosemary a healing herb.

1.

2.

3.

13. The Cadillac El Dorado had the biggest production engine in the world. Nobody makes it anymore.

1.

2.

3.

14. The Angkor Wat is the largest Hindu temple in the world. Somebody built it in the 12^th century.

1.

2.

3.

Exercise 23.5

Tn the following passage, change verbs into the passive voice where it makes sense.

The Causes of the US Civil War

To say that there were Clear causes that led to the Civil War is misleading. The key reason for the civil war was the cultural difTérencc between the Northerners and Southerners. If you examine the immigration records to the US from England, a clear trend develops: those immigrants Who classified themselves as "industrialists" or "skilled labourers 't tended to go to the north, while many Of the immigrants to the south listed "gentleman" as their occupation. While it is possible, and even necessary, for these two social groups to coexist in societYi when they stratify into two separate areas, they will likely create 2 very different cultures.

Between 1790 and 1860t these dlfferences had grown to the pomt where hatred between North and South was rampant. There was sporadic fighting, but nothing really centralized nor organized. There was hot debate in the US Congress, and they mainly disagreed on three issues: TariffS, Sectionalism and Slavery.

Tariffs

Tariffs are taxes that governments levy on goods that people import, Since the Northern states had a much stronger industry base than did the South, the southern states had to import many more goods from abroad, mostly England and France. The Southern states felt that a new Import Taxt introduced in 1860, was aimed squarely at them in an attempt to strengthen the North and weaken the South.

Sectionalism

As the northern states became more populous, their relative power in Congress also increased. People have fixed the number of senators at 2, but people determine the number Of Representatives in the House by populationy Because Of this, the south felt that they were losing power and influence, and the North would quiCkIy start to make fundamental changes in the United States, An interesting addition is that Abraham Lincoln, who was elected as president in 1860t was a Republican while the South was mostly run by Democrats.

Slavery

The most emotional issue of antebellum America was that of slavery. Many southern plantation owners claimed that they needed slaves to work their fields, collecting cotton. The making of cotton was the prime industry in the South, and the economy depended on it while northerners tended to think that slavery was evil and should be abolished.

In 1859 a radical abolitionist named John Brown raided a government arsenal, hoping to steal weopons for slaves, who would then start an armed uprismg agamst their owners. This raid failed, and the government hung Brown for treason. This raid, however, did push Americans to extremes — those who favored slavery and those who opposed it.

Grammar Point 24 More Participles as Subjects and Objects

Sometimes, verbs can be used as subjects and objects. When they are the subject, you should always use the gerund form. When they are the Object, you need to learn which verbal matches which verb, Some verbs, however, can take both — infinitive and gerund, In some cases, the meaning does not changev In some cases, the meaning does change,

With these verbs, the meaning doesn't change: advise allow attempt begin continue dislike forbid like prefer start try e.g. They dislike to work means the same as They dislike working They began to money the same as   They began making money

With these verbs, the meaning changes.

forget

regret

remember

stop

If you use the gerund, the action of the gerund happened first:

            e.g.        I stopped eating chips I ate ch ips, then I stopped.

I stopped smoking Iwas smokingr then I stopped. I regret saying that I said it, and now I regret it.

If you use the infinitive, the action Of the infinitive happened second.

            e.g.      I remembered to lock the door + I remembered, and locked the door

An easy way to remember this: "To" begins with the letter "T". "Then" also begins with the letter         _

I remembered to call my wife +1 remembered, then called my wife.

I stopped to buy some coffee. I stopped, then bought some coffee

This can be especially tricky with the veil) "forget". Forget means "stop thinking about something". Ifyou forget first, you can't do it.

"I forgot to lock the docW³ means first I forgot, so I didn't lock it.

However, ifyou forget second, then you can do itL

"I forgot locking the door" means I did lock the door, then forgot about it.

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Exercise 24.1

In the following sentences, use the four verbs: forget, regret, remember, or stop" to paraphrase the meaning.

            e.g.         I used to smoke I stopped smoking

I was driving, but then 1 bought coffee I stopped to buy coffee, People used to drink alcohOI in the US. , but after 1920 they didn't.

2.	The government made a law prohibiting alcohol, but felt bad about
	After jazz became popular, people did not listen to "Big Band" music.
4.	Everybody was rich so nobody thought Of savings.
5.	Many survivors Of the Confederacy thought back about living before the Civil War.
6.	In the 1920Si people who didn't learn the "Charleston" felt bad.

Grammar Point 25 - Adjectives plus

Infinitives

The infinitive is often used to give more information about an adjective. This is called an «adjective complement". Look at this example:

I am ready to Stan learning

The Infinitive "to stmt" gives more information about the adjective "ready". It "completes" it.

Points to remember about adjectives and infinitives They are most commonly used after the structure "subject + to be + adjective" I am happy to see you People were afraid to invest in the 1930s They are Often used With the structure "it is + adjective + infinitive                        e.g.     It is imponant to practice a language It is unusual to findpeople who don 't like chips
	Here is a list Of adjectives that are commonly used With the infinitive: afraid  eager    prepared easy  proud anxtous essential ready ashamed            fortunate astonished   shocked happy  sorry common hesitant content          honored stunned dangerous      important        surprised deligh ted       lucky   relieved determined   motivated reluctant difficult       necessary        usual disappointed   pleased            upset

124

Exercise 25.1

Fill in the blanks in the following passage using one of the adjectives from the column on the right.

to lend, to borrow, to make

Throughout the 1920s, it was common for people  money and invest it in the stock market. This was a time of economic prosperity, and it was easy  money, Banks were Willing money to anybody.

This all came to an end on October 24^th , 1929. This was when everything began to collapse

to buy, to see, to sell

The New York Stock Exchange for some reason became a "buyer's market". This meant that people were very willing, not so willing. For some reason, over the next few days everything collapsed. Everybody was surprised  just how quickly everything could develop.

to do, to see, to find out

 panic ensued and everybody was shocked what the results were. Over the weekend, everybody was anxtous what would happen. Nobody was prepared  anything about it.

to appear, to act, to taket

Although it was obviously important  action, the government, especially the Trade Commission was hesitant They did not wantanxious or cowardly.

Exercise 25.2

Paraphrase these sentences using the adjectives above

People did not want to invest in the stock market in the 1 9.30s, because they were afraid.

2.	Many people couldn't save money because it was difficult.
3.	People did not act after the crash - nobody was ready,
4b	A Stock Market Crash cannot happen again because the government has taken careful steps.
5.	Many people did not ask for social assistance in the 1930s because they were ashamed.
6.	People took any job available — they were very eager.
7.	During the Great Depression, many people did not dance that was strange.

Grammar Point 26 Modal Auxiliaries

Verbs

To give advice and sound polite, use a modal auxiliary verb. Many people think that modals ate difficult to use, but really they are not. Modals add emotions to sentences. The emotion depends on the situation, tone and vocabulary used.

The modals in English are will, shall, can, would, could, should, might, may, and ought to

Things to remember about Modals The same word can have different meanings in different situations. The verb "must" , for example, can mean different things when you are speculating than when you are giving a command, e,g, All the people coming Ofthe movie are smiling It be a happy movie. is the same as You have a hig test tomorrow —you must stop watching videos and study. Yoa 100k tired - I could help you is grot the same as It's 11:30 at night — who evnÏd be calling this time? Módals never change form — regardless of the subject of the sentence e•g• can skate very quickly trot cans skate very quickly. might want to see the game not She mights wont to see thegame. Modals are always followed by the simple form of the verb, e.g- will win the game tonight, grot My team will wins the game. MOdaIs cannot be linked to Other modals. go not will must go To make a negative modal, add the adverb "not" between the modal and the main verb e.g IIé might not play tonight not not might play tonight

Grammar Point 27 Modals for Advice

There are two common ways to give advice us:ng modals. The two modals are "should" and "would".

Should is used to describe things that are "correct" or "right". For example: If you find a wallet on the street, you should return it. When you see an accident, you should call 9-1-1. Should is usually not used with as the subject.		Would is used to describe what you really do in that situation. FOr example: If I tind money on the street, 1 would put it in the bank. To learn a language, I would watch TV in that language as much as possible Would is usually used with as the subject.
	In some situations, the end result is the same. For example: To learn to skate, you should buy skates and practice, To learn to skate, I would buy skates and practice. TO practice talking, you should try joining a sports team. To practice talking, I would try jotmng a sports team.

Exercise 27.1

Answer the following questions using "Should" What is the best way to learn to skate?

2. What is the best way to practice typing?

What is the hest way to practice speaking?

4.      What is the best way to Increase speaking speed?

5.      What is the best way to quit smoking?

6.      What is the best way to learn a language?

Exercise 27.2 Difficult questions

In each of the following situations, there is a number of possible reactions. Read each situation and determine what the correct action is — what you "should" do. Then, imagine yourself in each of the situations and determine what you really "would" do.

l. After a hockey game, you are pulling out of your parking space. There are no people in the garage, but there are many cars. Because you are tired, you accidentally slightly scratch the car beside yours. What should you do? What would you do?
2. You have an appointment with your boss in her office. You arrive at the appropriate time, but she is not there. By accident, you notice an open file on her desk and see that there are things that are untrue written about you. What should you do? What would you do?
	3- On the subway , there is a large group Of drunken young people. They are making a lot Of noise and annoying everybody. As they are leavingï one accidentally drops a $50.00 bill on the floor. They do not notice, and Start leaving the car. What should you do? What would you do?
	4. you are waiting for the subway on the way to school, You must get on the next train, or you will be late for an exam. While you are standing theret a little old lady pushes in front of your What should you do? What would you do?

Exercise 27.3 — Building a hockey team

Here are reviews of the NHL hockey team that are entering the playoffs. Imagine you are helping them, and are advising the managers how they should improve. Choose 4 teams, and write a brief paragraph describing how they can improve, what kind Of players they need, what skills they need and what they don't.

Use phrases like

They should try to boost their offense/ defense/ goaltending . . .

They should try to get faster/tougher/more defensive . . . They should try to focus more on . . .

New YOIfk Islanders: The Islanders are in the playoffs for the third straight year after a seven-year absence. They have lost In the first round in eaCh of the past two years and haven't won a playoff series since 1993. They won't this year either unless they solve the problem of goaltending. Their speed is OK, but they get pushed around a lot.

Calgary Flames: The Flames have clinched the playoffs for the first time since 1996. They have not won a playoff series since capturing the Stanley Cup in 1989. Calgary is one of the leaguers biggest surprises this season, but there are still some serious questions in net. Their defense doesnt t help much, either.

New Jersey Devils: The defending champions New Jersey has a lot Of playoff experience and Martin Brodeur, the leading goalie in wins and shutouts. They rely too much on defense, however, and really need to address the offensive side of the game. They only have one good hitter, and he's starting to get old.

Dallas Stars: Dallas enters the Stanley Cup Playoffs with a good mix of talent and experience. Marty Turco, one ofthc league's top goaltenderst is a major part of the Stars' success. HOwever, they need to improve their offensive speed if they want to advance far in the playoffs,

Vancouver Canucks: The Canucks struggled in their first seven games in March after All-Star fOrward Todd Bertuzzi got suspended, but managed a couple of good moves at the trade deadline, enough for their title. Their defense, however, is to slow and allows speedy teams to move through too quickly.

Colorado Avalanche: The Colorado Avalanche, one of the NHL's most successfi.Jl teams of last decade, enter the NHL PlayoffS 2004 without a division title for the first time in the 10 years. However, Colorado has several superstars in the team. As with Philadel hia their oal leaves a lot to be desired.

San Jose Sharks: The Sharks have great goaltenders , Evgem Nabokov and Vesa Toskala. Meanwhile, five Sharks forwards scored 20 or more goals during the regular season. However, their defense is not as strong as it needs to be to be a true champion.

Philadelphia Flyers: The Flyers won the Atlantic Division title for the third time in five seasonso Key injuries hurt them in the second half, hut Philadelphia also had five players with at least 20 goals. As with Colorado, goaltending seems to be their biggest worry,

Boston Bnrins: Boston won the N01theast Division for the second time in three seasons. The Bruins have not won a playoff series since 1999, losing in the first round in each of the past two years after failing to quality for two seasons. They are very big and strong, but depend completely on their top line to get all the goals. They should try to spread the scoring more.

Tampa Bay Lightning: The Eastern Conference champion enters the playoffs with the league's leading scorer, Maran Stu Louis, who had 38 goals and 56 assists during the regular season. Tampa Bay won a playoff series for the first time in its history last year. They rely too much on their goaltender, and would benefit from a tougher defensive COIVS.

Detroit Red Wings: The Red Wings have the best record during the regular season and will hold the home-ice advantage throughout the postseason. The one thing that they lack is toughness. However, they have a good blend Of veterans and youngsters- Detroit has been in the playoffs 14 years in a row and has won three Stanley Cups Since 1997.

Glossary:

goalie — goaltenderï goalkeeper shutout - strong victory for the goalie, the opposing team does not score a goal in the game leaves a lot to be desired - is not very good. managed to — could do it, but it was very difficult forwards — attackers, not defensemeny Teams usually have three forwards on the ice at the same time defensemen — defenders, not attackers, Teams usually have two defensemen on the ice at the same time

Grammar point 28 - Modals for Necessity

When you want to tell somebody that there is no choice, you can use the modal "must" or the modal-like verb "have to". Both of these auxiliaries state that the person has no choice. Realistically, there is no difference

With "have to" , the verb "have" is changed to reflect the subject.

            e.g.        I have topractice skating

He has to practice passing.

Remember that both of these verbs are fóllowed by the S.F Uv.

I have to go.

She has to wait.

Exercise 28.1

Paraphrase these sentences, using the modal "must" or the modal-like verb "have to. "

e.g. To win the game, score more goals than the other team

 You must score more goals than the other team in order to win or  Ifyou want to win, you must scope more goals than the other team. To get better, practice every day.

2. Teams that play together know each other very well.

3,	To become a fast skater, practice every morning and every evening.
4.	Goalies practice stretching because they don't want to get hurt.
5.	Teams practice passing to get many goals.
6.	Nobody wants to be Injured, so be carefUl.
7.	Every team needs balance — offence and defense, to be a winner.
	Every team needs to know about every other team, in order to beat them.
	Ifyou don't want a penalty, avoid hitting goalies.

132

Grammar Point 29 Prohibition vs.

Choice

If you want to tell somebody what is wrong, use the form: Subject+ Must not + S.F. V.

e.g. When you cross the border, you must noi lie to the C"Stoms officer, There is no choice. If you lie, and they catch you, you will go to jail,

e.g. When the referee blows the whistle, you must "0t continueplaying. Ifyou continue, you will get a penalty.

If you want to tell somebody what is optional, use the form: Subj. + {don't) have to + S.F. V.

e.g. You don't have to like hockey.

This is a free country — liking soccer, cricket, or horse-racing is OK.

e.g. You don't have to wear a uniform ro esl school.

Ifyou wear a uniform, it's OK, and if you don't it's OK — you choose.

Exercise 29.1

Write sentences using the promptst and the appropriate verb— "must" , "must not" or

"don't have to". Begin each sentence with "I think ice hockey players Wear a helmet

2.      Hit with their elbow.

3.      Hit with their shoulders.

Play the entire gamer

5. Hold their sticks abovc their waist.

Wear protective equipment

Join a union

Exercise 29.2

In the following passage, choose the appropriate form — either "must" 1 "must not" or "don't have to".

Keeping Hockey Safe

Hockey is a very physical game. This makes it exciting and also makes it fun to watch and play. However, because of the physicality, rules (must/must not/don't have to) be strictly enforced. Players who break the rules are assessed a "minor" or "major'^t penalty, depending of the severity of the act.

Penalties have evolved out of the need to protect players. The driving factor behind all penalties is that players (must/must not/don't have to) hurt other players. If an action could seriously injure or even kill another player, it is illegal. For example, players (must/must not/don't have to) lift their sticks above their shoulders during a game, because their stick can hit and Injure other players. Players (must/ must not/don't have to) hit others with their elbows, for this may kill someonev If, on the other hand, the action is not really dangerous, it is not a penalty. For example, if a player hits someone with their shoulder, it is not a penalty.

Penalties are also assessed if an action by a player gives her/his team an unfair advantage. For example, a player (must/must not/doesn't have to) hold onto another player if the second player will pass him/her. Also, a player (must/must not/doesn't have to) use his/her stick to hook a player from behind

There is, however, some flexibility for referees. If the puck enters the net after it bounces from a player's leg, the referee decides if the player "kicked" it in or not. It is OK for the puck to bounce off a player's leg, but the player (must/must not/doesn't have to) kick it in. However, the referee decides if it was a kiCk or not' If it was a kiék, the referee (mustVmust nat/doesn't have to) allow the goal.

Minor penalties are two minutes long. However, the spirit of the penalty is to grve the wronged team an advantage. If the team on the "power play" scores a goal, the penalty is finished and the player (must/must not/doesn't have to) finish the two minutes.

A major penalty, however, is meant to punish a player for doing something very bad. If a player has a major penalty, he/she (must/must not/doesn't have to) sit fór five minutes - even ifthc other team scores a goal.

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Grammar Point 30 Modal Review

When you want to show that people have no choice, you need to use the modal "must" or the modal-like verb "have to"

Remember that these two verbs have the same meaning, but when you change them into the negative, the meanings change completely, "Must not" means it is illegal, don't do it. "Don't have to" means you can choose - both yes and no are OK.

Things to remember about modal auxiliary verbs: They are not the main verbs — so they must not be the only verb in the sentence. They add emotion to the main verb e•g• T must tomorrow. is wrong. They should later. is wrong They never change form, regardless Of the subject         e.g. He musts           here, is wro She shoulds to' again. is wrong They are always followed by the Simple Form of the verb (S.F.V.)      e.g.        They       going to school, is wrong                  He        winning this evening is wrote

Exercise 30.1

In the following sentences, underline the subject once and the verb twice. Then correct any mistakes you find.

They Should try to study before they go to a casino again.

2. People who are learning poker shoúld watching poker shows on TN. to learn.

He has never lost a hand of blackjack in his life.

After watching a few videos, you shouldn't thinking that you know how to win poker.

5. Everybody should remember that gambling can be a very serious problem,

6 People Who have difficulty stopping playing poker should get help

Exercise 30.2 - Explaining Blackjack rules

Using the modals "have to" "must" and "must not", complete these "rules of Blackjack". (must/ must not/don't have to)

Blackjack is a very easy game to learn, but very difficult to master. The goal of the game is to collect cards whose value is closer to 21 than the values of the cards of the dealer- The only trick is that you (must/ must not/don't have to) go over 21. If your cards combine to a total over 21, you automatically lose. This is called "to bust"

Cards arc all worth their "face value" — a 4, for example, is worth 4 potnts. Kings, queens and Jacks (so-called face cards") are worth 10 points, and aces are worth 1 or 11 — you choose.

At the beginning of the game, every player is dealt 2 cards. This is called your "hand". In Ontario, both cards (must/ must not/don't have to) be face up at all times. You cannot hide them. If you want, you can get more cards, but you (must/ must not/don't have to)To get new cards, you (must/ must not/don*t have to)say "hit me" to the dealer. That is the signal. You can have as many cards as you want - until you want to Stop, Of you bust. If you don't want any more cardst you (must/ must not/ don't have to) say stay", and the dealer won't give you any more.

If you have a pair, you can "split". This means that you can double your bet and play two "hands". Each hand is played separately — you could win one, lose the other, for example. Splitting is your choice — if you want to, fine — if you don't fine.

Another play is to "double down" — if you get a 9, 10 or Il dealt to you in your opening hand, you can double your bet, but you will only get one card. Again, you (must/ must not/don't have to)— it's your choice.

If your cards are the same point value as the cards of the dealer, you lose and the dealer wins — this is called a "push".

All of the players play against the dealer. You (must/ must not/don't have to) worry about any of the cards of the other players„

There are two rules that control the cards of the dealer — if the dealer has 16 or less, he/she (must/ must not/ don't have to) hit — it is not a Choice. If the dealer has 17 or more, s/he @ust/ must not/don't have to) stay — again, it is not their choice.

If the dealer busts, all players automaticálly win. You win as much as you bet. [f you get a natural blackjack, you win 150% of your bet. Don't worry — you (must/ must not/dcn't have to) do any math. That's the dealer's job.

Exercise 30.3

Here is a list Of probabilities — so-called ' 'odds" for blackjack. Using the prompts provided, write sentences advising players on how to play. Begin every sentence with "I would .

Important Odds (Probabilities) in Blackjack

Probability Odds Probability to bust      to bust to win

Dealer's face card: 5 42%	1 in 2.38	up to 58%
Dealer's face card: 6 42%	1 in 2.38	up to 58%
Dealer's face card: 7 26%	I in 3.85	up to 74%
Dealer's face card: 10 23%	I in 4.35	up to 77%
Dealerls face card: A 17%	I in 5.88	up to 83%

e.g. The dealer has a 6, you have a 6 I would stay (because I think the dealer will husf)

The dealer has a 7, you have a 10

2.      The dealer has a 6, you have a 5

3.      The dealer has a 10, you have 2 kings

4.      The dealer has a 4, you have 2 ss

5.      The dealer has an A, you have 10

6.      The dealer has 3 , you have 3

7.      The dealer has a 10t you have 10

8.      The dealer has a King, you have 11

9.      The dealer has a 3, you have an I I

The dealer has 5, you have a 4

Grammar Point 31 Modals for Speculation

When you are in a situation, and you are not sure of the outcome, you can use a modal to tell people that you are not exactly sure of the result.

If you are sure, simply say:

            My team will        or

            Your team         not

To tell people that you are not sure, instead of saying "will" or "won't", say.

            They             8 goals

They might get 9goaIs.

Things to remember about speculating: These modal auxiliary verbs must be followed by the S.F.V. e.g. It might rain tomorro w The dealer may give me an ace "May" and 'Might" have the same meaning—both mean you are not sure of the outcome              e.g. The next card might be (110            the some as The next card may be a /0     They are Often used in combination with "l would/wouldn't    because     may e.g. r would stay, because rhe next        may he a face curd f would not split, because the dealer may bust This talks about a result in the futurev The time is understood and does not require will/ won't/going to auxiliaries. e.g. There haven't been manyface cards recently, so the nett card might be high. "Could" is sometimes used to show less certainty than may or might. It shows very little confidence in the prediction, It is often used with , , , but I don't think so/ I don't thirik it Will"               e.g The next card could be a two, but I           think it is.

Grammar Point 32 - Speculating about the Present

When you are talking about a situation happening now, you can use modals to describe your speculation, The modals that are used for present speculation are the same as those for speculation, but there are a few more, also:

In order from strongest: must may / might can could may / might not couldn't can 't

This can become tricky, because you can speculate about the future and the present at the same time in one sentence without any time markers:

She must have good cards, so I would not bet against her because you might lose.

This sentence has three separate clauses:

The first part of the sentence, "She must have good cards" ig speculating about what she has now; the second paut of the sentence, "I would not bet against her" is advice in the present; the third part of the sentence, "you might lose" is speculating about the future; however, from the context, the meaning of these modals becomes very clear.

Here are the basic rules of poker.

At the beginning ofthe game every player receives 5 cards. These cards are called the "hand" The player's hand is visible only to the player. Players can change cards — the number of cards that they can change is established by the dealer. Every dcalcr can choosc how many cards to change, and how many times they can be changed. A standard set would be to change a maximum of three cards, once. That is called ' 'Draw poker" - At the end ofthe round, every player who is still in the game "opens" or "shows" his/her cards. The player who has the highest hand wins,

Here is a list of poker hands, and their descriptions.

1, Royal Flush: This is the highest poker hand. It consists Of ace, king, queen, jack, and ten, all the same suiU AS all suits are equal, all royal flushes are equal.

2. Straight Flusly Five cards ofthe same suitin sequence - such as

7. Between two straight flushest the one containing the higher top card is higher. An ace can be counted as low, so ¥5-Y4*3-¥2-YA is a straight flush, but its top card is the five, not the ace, so it is the lowest type ofstraight flush. The cards cannot "turn the

04-03-02. •A-OK is not valid,

3, Four of a kind: Four cards ofthe same rank - such as four queens, The fifth card can be anything. This combination is sometimes known as "quads". Between two [Ours of a kind, the one with the higher set of four cards is higher - so 3-3-3-3-A is beaten by 4-4-44-2.

4.                Full House: Th1S consists Of three cards of one rank and two cards Of another rank for example three sevens and two tens. When comparing full houses, the rank of the three cards determines which is higher. For example 9-9-9-44 beats 8-8-8-A-A. If the threes of a kind were equal, the rank of the pairs would decide.

5.                Flush: Five cards of the same suit. When compartng two flushes, the highest card determines which is higher. If the highest cards are equal then the second highest card is compared; if those are equal toot then the third highest card, and so on. 6e Straight: Five cards of mixed suits in sequence - for example

When comparing two sequences, the one with the higher ranking top card is better. Ace can count high or low in a straight, but not both at once.

7. Three of a Kind ^v Three cards ofthe same rank plus two other cards. This combination IS also known as Triplets or Trips. When comparing two threes of a kind the hand in which the three equal cauds are Of hlgher rank is better.

S. Two Pairs: A pair is two cards of equal rank. In a hand with two pairs, the two pairs are of different ranks, and there is an Odd card to make the hand up to five cards. When comparing hands with two pairs, the hand with the highest pair wins.

9. Pair: A hand with two cards of equal rank and three other cards which do not match these or each other. When comparing two such hands the hand with the higher pair is better.

Exercise 32.1

This passage explains betting rules of poker. Simplify these sentences, using modals where possible. You don't have to use only speculation modals — you can use modals of necessity also.

At the beginning of the game, the dealer is required to give everybody 5 cards Everybody has the choice to look at their cards, and then think. Then the first person, the person to the left of the dealer chooses — to bet or not. If that person has good cards, they can bet. If they think their cards will win, they can bet a lot.

If they decide to bet, they arc required to tell everybody how much they bet, and put that amount into the centre of the table. It is not a choice, they are required to put that amount in. That area is called the "pot".

The person to their left is required to decide. That person looks at his/her cards, considers how much the original bet was, and then is required to either I) drop out — this is called "fold"; 2) bet the same amount — this is called "to see"; or 3) bet more - this is called "raise",

This cycle continues until 1) everybody has contributed the same amount to the "pot"; or 2) everybody has dropped out.

A key rule Of betting in poker is that if nobody matches your bet, you don't have to show your cards. That means that if you don't have the best cards you can still win if everybody foldsv This is called "bluffing", not lying, and is a very highly respected skill in poker.

Exercise 32.2

How to spot a liar

Here is a list of "signals" that liars "give off" when they are lying.

They avoid touching you.

They put something between you.

They will not stand or sit straight.

They avoid saying details.

They try to change the subject.

They often repeat any question that you ask them.

They don't use contractions.

They look to their left, not their right.

Using these "gives", decide what kind of cards these people have. If you are not sure, use a modal. Refer to the chart on page 140.

1.

She looks at the 5 cards In her hand, puts the cards on the table, looks up, and smiles. She says "what?' in a high tone. When it is her turn to change cards, she takes one card, looks at it, and smiles. Then She puts her cards on the tablew What does she have?

2.

He looks at the 5 cards in his hand, takes a drink without looking up, and puts the drink down. He takes three cards on the draw, puts the cards on the table, puts his hands on the cards, and looks What does he have?

3,

She looks at her cards very quickly, then shifts in her chair, She asks you how many cards she can change. She asks if there are any wild cards, She looks at her cards again, She Changes three cards, She looks at her cards for a long time. What does she have?

4.

He looks at his hand, around the table at the Other players, then at his cards again, Hé doesn't stop locking at his cards, but he doesn't stop scratching, either. He doesn't tåke any cards on the draw, What does he have?

5.

She looks at her cards far a very short time, and then puts them down. She asks what time it is, and looks very serious. She doesn't take any cards on the draw. What does she have?

Grammar Point 33 Reported Speech

In some situations, because you do not want to take responsibility if everything doesn't work out as planned, you can change the structure of a sentence to let the listeners know that you are not stating your own opinion, and repeating another person's idea. This is called "reported speech"

The main reason that you make this change is to protect your integrity. Look at this example

You work with Bob. At 4:30pm, Bob tells you rhat he is leaving and going home. He leaves. Ten minutes later, Bob's wife calls and asksfor Bob You tell Bob's wife that Boh is going home. However, Bob goes to a bar and arrives home 4 hours later. Bob's wife gets very angry at you, and thinks that you are a liar. She will never trust you again. However, ifyou tell her: Bob said he was going home, Bob 's wife will be angry at Bob, not you. You are safe.

An easy way to accomplish this when you are writing is to put quotation marks around the part that you are repeating. When you are speaking, however, you cannot put quotation marks, and therefore must change the structure of the sentence:

The sentence must begin with the phrase "[subject] said

The information that you are repeating must also change — the main verb moves "back" in time.

143

Here is a chart of the tense changes:          Simple Present Simple Past                am hungry"           He said he was hungry        Present Continuous Past              "I am going home"                        Continuous                                   He said he was going home          Present Perfect Past Perfect               "I have sent it" He said he had sent it      Simple Past  Past Petfect             "I went out" •5 He said he had gone out      Past Continuous + Past Perfect       "l was going out" He said he had been                        Continuous                                                       going out Past Perfect No change*                                                     had met him before"* He said he had met him before        Simple Future Future with would                    will go" He said he would go Future Continuous Future Continuous "I will be walking" He said he with would     would be walking Future Perfect Future Perfect with "I will have finished" He said he would       would have finished

* Remember — there is no tense that describes an action before the past perfect tensev

44

Things to remember about reported speech: All the pronouns that are connected to the verb must change: Frank: I will call you. Frank said he wou/i/ cat/ me. Felix: I have caned him twice. Felix said he had called yu twice In a sentence that has an auxiliary verb, the main verb remains in the participle form: Marta: I om waiting. Marta said she was waiting. Sue-Ellen: I have waited long enough. Sue-Ellen said she had waited long enough, When you report a sentence with modals, the verb does not change: Mark: I would wait. Mark said he wowld wait. Frank: You should study Frank said we should study more. These verbs can also be used, in place of "said": admit   answer complain point out     deny promise argue protest remark observe reply Ifyouare sure that the situation has not changed since the conversation, you don't need to change the tense Of the sentence, but you still need to change the pronouns: Tom: I have three children. Tom said he has three children, Mažtha: I Tike spaghetli. Martha said she likes spaghetti. Bill: I have never killed anybody. Bill said he has never killed anybody.

145

10. John — I was sleeping,

11. Katie-I don't like cheese.

12, Jody— I can't ski well.

13. Paul -I will wait for four hours.

14. Terri — I am enjoying my vacation.

When you make a sentence in reported speech, you want to emphasize that you received this information before now. Because of this, you need to change the time markers in the sentence also.

Here is a list Of how time markers change when you change the sentence into reported speech:

today that day tomorrow + the next day yesterday the day before next week + the following week next month the following month next the fóltowing in one hour + one hour later in two days + two days later

this morning that morning this afternoon that afternoon tonight that evening last week + the previous week last year + the previous year last             the previous ago *before two days ago two days befOre

e.g.                  Tom: / will meer you tomorrow morning. Tom said he would meet me the next morning•

Suet / called you last night! Sue said she had cajléd the previous night,

Exercise 33.3

Here is a description Of five people.

First, change these sentences into reported speech structures

Second, arrange them at a table so that they will not fight, and will have something to talk about at dinner

Mr. Ponikarovsky hates dogs.

Mr. Belfour hates cats.

Mr. Lindros likes music.

Mr. Domi has a business in the U

Mr. Ponikarovsky loves the Maple Leafs.

Mr. Sundin doesn't like singing.

Mr. Domi has dogs.

Mr. Sundrn doesn't like hockey.

Mr. Lindros likes cats.

Mr. Belfour owns a Karaoke company r

Use phrases [Ike:

X said 'i Y" , so I think he should Sit next to O or X said O so I think he should sit far from Z

Arrange their seating plan around an imaginary round table, Who will sit at each position?

1 49

Exercise 33.4

Choose two people whom you would like to invite for dinner. On the internet, you have to find three things that the person likes or dislikes.

Work with a partner. Organize seating arrangements around a round table,

Use this chart to help you

Person #1                                                      Pejson Likes                                                             Likes Dislikes                                                          Dislikes

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